the basis of speech. The increasing sense of rhythm and the confidence and freedom from muscular strain which result from proper forms of exercise also help in vitalizing speech.

Relaxation and rest are important as well for speech as for general health. As the body needs activity for its proper functioning, so it needs relaxation for the accumulation of fresh stores of energy and for the maintenance of that equivalence between wearing down and building up which is necessary to the life rhythm. Moreover, this balance of exercise and rest is one of the chief means of creating in the tissues the resistance which serves as a barrier against disease. Neglect of this bodily need is, next to improper food and inadequate elimination, the chief cause of colds and of throat infections which play such havoc with the voice. In addition to the relaxation which comes in sleep, the ability to relax at will for a few minutes is of great value for ordinary conditions of life, since it makes possible long periods of sustained effort without great fatigue.

In speech training the ability to relax is indispensable. Zimbalist has said that every art is based on relaxation. Certainly of none is this truer than of speech. Strain in any part of the body lessens the freedom and beauty of tone.

Perhaps the most important law of hygiene for speech as well as for general health is that of good posture. Good posture must not be thought of as fixed and rigid, but as mobile and adaptable to changing conditions; it is dynamic -the best adjustment of the body to the needs of the moment. Walking, running, sitting, standing, playing various games, doing different kinds of work-all require different bodily adjustments. Emotional states, such as joy, sorrow, fear, rage, have their characteristic bodily attitudes. The fundamental principle of posture, however, is this: No matter what specific demands are made on the body, correct posture means that state of balance which permits the muscles and organs to work together with a minimum expenditure of energy.

The standing posture which permits the freest and most perfect functioning of the body as a whole and of the speech organs in particular is thus described by Dr. Joel F. Goldthwait: 2

When the body is used rightly or fully erect, the feet, knees, hips, spine, shoulders, head, and all portions which represent the frame of the body, are used in balance, with the greatest range of movement possible without strain. In this position, the chest is held high and well expanded, the diaphragm is raised, and the breathing and heart action are performed more easily. The abdominal wall is firm and flat, and the shape of the abdominal cavity represents an inverted pear, large and rounded above, small below. The ribs have only a moderate downward inclination. The sub-diaphragmatic space is ample to accommodate the viscera. In this position, also, there is no undue pressure upon, or interference with, the pelvic viscera or with the large ganglia at the back of the abdomen and in the pelvis. On the other hand, if the body is drooped or relaxed, so that the shoulders drag forward and downward, the whole body suffers, the weight is thrown imperfectly upon the feet, so that the arch must be strained; the knees are slightly sprung, which shows by the crepitating joints; the pelvis is changed in its inclination, with strain to the sacro-iliac joints and lower back. In this position the chest is necessarily lowered, the lungs are much less fully expanded than normal, the diaphragm is depressed, the abdominal wall is relaxed, so that with the lessening support of the abdominal wall, together with the lowering of the diaphragm, the abdominal organs are necessarily forced downward and forward. Good posture requires an understanding of these conditions, and especially of the following facts: that the stomach and liver cannot work rightly if the ribs are contracted and narrowed so that there is practically no sub-diaphragmatic space; that the pelvic organs cannot work rightly and must be congested if the loose abdominal organs are crowded into the lower abdomen and pelvis, so that the nutrition must suffer; and that the physiology in general must be abnormal if the anatomic conditions under which the physiological function is expected to be performed are so markedly abnormal.

2 Joel F. Goldthwait and Leah C. Thomas, Body Mechanics and Health (Houghton Mifflin Company).

To acquire such good physical habits as are here described may seem a forbidding task. Indeed, it is not an easy one. But if the effort is persisted in until the right habits become fixed, the gain in health and self-confidence is almost beyond belief. The lithe yet vigorous grace of the Winged Victory of Samothrace can be achieved by any normal young person who is willing to make the necessary effort.

Good Speech the Expression of a Developed Personality

The condition of physical and mental adjustment described in this chapter is often referred to as poise. It is, obviously, a necessary condition for effective speaking. Want of poise is manifested in rigidity of the muscles of the face and of the whole body, in a strained expression of the eyes, in mannerisms of various sorts, in lack of fullness and freedom of voice, and in absence of rhythm and force in speech. Usually, too, such tension hinders clear thinking. On the hearer the effect is one of greater or less discomfort, so that he finds it hard to give full value to the thoughts expressed.

Here we touch upon a point not always sufficiently considered in speech training, namely, the importance of good physical and mental equipment in relation not only to our way of speaking, but also to the thoughts we express. Viewed as a means of social control, speech is of value only if its content is sound and constructive, or at least not definitely unsound and destructive. Unintelligible speech might conceivably be regarded as an advantage in a person who habitually darkened counsel by words without wisdom. A definite part, then, of the "preparatory reactions" for speaking should be the development of that soundness of mind and body which will make utterance not only easy to hear, but also worth hearing.

CHAPTER II

THE PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF SPEECH

SOUND is generally thought of as the sensation perceived through the ear. In terms of physics it is a form of wave motion, set up by a vibrating body (a violin string, the dome of a bell, the vocal cords) and transmitted through a medium, usually air. The production of air waves requires some motive force (the bow of the violin, the clapper of the bell, the breath expelled from the lungs) to start the vibrator. Very often some resounding (re-sounding) body (the violin box with the air contained in it, or that in the vocal passages) is required to reinforce the waves formed by the vibrator and make them effectively audible as sound.

Practically all musical instruments have these three elements the motor, the vibrator or generator, and the resonator. The human musical instrument has still anotherthe articulator (the tongue, teeth, lips, etc.) by which the voice is shaped into the patterns of articulate speech, that is, converted into vowel and consonant sounds which, combined into words, are used to convey our thoughts audibly to others.

Since the purpose of our study is to understand the exact nature and use of speech, it is well for us to begin with a consideration of its physical and physiological bases.

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND

Sound has four properties or elements, pitch, volume (or intensity), quality, and duration. These physical properties

of sound call for brief discussion as they relate to the human voice.

1. Pitch

The pitch of a sound, that is, its height or depth (also called its acuteness or gravity), is chiefly determined by the rate of vibration. Shortening a violin string or increasing its tension causes it to vibrate more rapidly when plucked and thus to emit a higher tone. The rate, or frequency, of vibration of the vocal cords depends on three factors, their tension, length, and thickness. An increase of tension of the cords causes an increase in the rate of their vibration, as does also a decrease in length or in thickness. Although there are only two vocal cords, they are capable of so many delicate adjustments in these respects that the human voice has a wide range of pitch.

2. Volume, or Intensity

The second property of a sound is volume, or intensity, that is, its loudness or softness. This depends chiefly on the amplitude of vibration and on the degree of reinforcement by the co-vibration of another sonorous body. In other words, the sensation of loudness is primarily dependent on the amount of energy with which the sound is generated and on the extent of its reinforcement by resonance.

The result of the working together of these two factors can be seen in a familiar experiment with a violin string. If the string be stretched between fixed points and then lightly plucked, it will make slight oscillations back and forth and will set into motion correspondingly small waves of air, thus producing a scarcely audible sound. If the string be plucked more vigorously, it will swing through a much wider distance, set in motion larger waves of air, and

1 The distance that the particular particles in vibration swing back and forth.