[s] and [z].

If the grooved tip of the tongue is pressed lightly against the teeth ridge and the breath is sent in a narrow stream through this groove and between the teeth, the sound produced is called the tip post-dental fricative.

There are two such fricatives: the one breathed, which is the consonant in so and has for its symbol [s]; the other voiced, which is the initial sound in zone and has for its symbol [z]. These sounds can also be made with the tip of the tongue low in the mouth.

In English spelling the breathed form is represented not only by s, but also by ss as in miss [mis] and by c as in mice [mais]; it is also the second of the two sounds represented by x in such words as axe [æks]. The voiced form is represented not only by z, but by s as in has and by zz as in puzzle; it is also the second of the sounds represented by x in such words as exist [Igzist].

Of all the sounds in our language, [s] and [z] are perhaps the least agreeable even at their best, and they are the most frequently and most unpleasantly mispronounced. In addition to the commonly recognized intra-dental lisp, there are

more than a dozen other forms of lisped [s] and [z]. Besides these, there is the disagreeable hissing sound produced by imperfect control of the breath stream or by throat strain or by undue prolongation of the sound, and the almost inaudible sound produced by too weak pressure of the air.

To make these sounds lightly yet clearly requires for most speakers a considerable training, but there is perhaps no other phase of speech improvement that so amply rewards faithful and intelligent practice.

[S] and [3]

If the blade of the tongue is brought near the teeth ridge while the front is raised toward the hard palate and the lips rounded, the sound produced is a blade-front post-dental fricative.

There are two such fricatives: the breathed, which is represented in ordinary spelling by the letters sh as in should, and which has for its symbol [S]; and the voiced, which is represented by the z in azure, and which has for its symbol [3].

The sound [S] occurs also in ci in precious, ce in ocean, ti in election, si in pension, ss in tissue, s in sugar, and c in specie. The sound [3] is represented by g in rouge, s in pleasure, and si in explosion, as well as by the letter z.

Like [s] and [z], these sounds are frequently lisped; often also they are articulated with too little firmness and precision of the tongue and lip muscles, the result being very slovenly and noisy speech. Many persons through overassimilation 14 use [S] and [3] more frequently than is necessary, the result being an unpleasantly sibilant speech.

14 In such expressions as did you, don't you, that year. See the section on "Assimilation" in Chapter VII.

5. THE PALATAL FRICATIVE

[j]

If the front of the tongue is raised nearly to the hard palate, the voiced breath in passing through the narrow opening produces a sound called the voiced palatal fricative. It is the sound of y in yes, and its phonetic symbol is [j]; it is the consonantal form of the high front vowel [i].

Like [w], this sound is perhaps more often a semi-vowel or glide consonant than a fricative.

When the letter u is used initially, or after certain consonants (as [b], [p], [m], and [k]), it is preceded by [j], as in use [juz], pew [pju], beauty [bjutı], mute [mjut], and cue [kju].

6. THE GLOTTAL FRICATIVE

[h]

If the vocal cords are sufficiently approximated to cause friction but not voice, the sound produced is called the glottal fricative. It is the sound of h in house, and its symbol is [h].

This consonant is sometimes called a voiceless vowel." In forming it the tongue is in the position of the vowel that follows, so that in the word he the [h] may be said to be a breathed [i], and in the word ha it may be called a breathed [a]. It occurs in English only at the beginning of a syllable, though it is retained in the spelling of such words as ah and shah.

Consonant Chart

In the horizontal rows of the summary chart on page 104 will be found the consonant sounds articulated in the same manner, and in the vertical rows will be found the sounds articulated by the same organs. The order of arrangement is that suggested by the diagrams, the lips being at the left.

Fricative.

[h] [w]

[f] [v] [0] [8] [s] [z][r] [S] | [3]

[p] pin, cap, taper

[b] bin, cab, tabor [t] tin, bit, bitter [d] din, bid, bidder [k] kit, lick, asked [g] go, flag, bugle

[f] | [v] |

[j]

[h]

NOTE.-b and v are abbreviations for "breathed" and "voiced."

CHAPTER VI

ANALYSIS OF SPEECH SOUNDS: VOWELS

Definition

A vowel, as we defined it in Chapter IV, is a speech sound in which the voiced breath is emitted with relatively little obstruction, its special character being the result of the size of the mouth and throat cavities and the size of their openings.1

Make the sound of ee in see, of oo in moon, and of a in calm. Watching the process in a mirror, you will observe that the positions of the jaw, lips, and tongue change for each of these vowels. There is the possibility of an infinite number of variations in tongue and lip positions, and consequently of an infinite number of vowels. Of the possible vowel sounds the English language recognizes only about twenty-five, including diphthongs; but as each of these vowels has several different forms according to the consonants that precede and follow it, there are in reality many more. Besides, the vowel positions are so much less exact than those of the consonants that there is a considerable variation in the form of the same vowel in the speech of different persons, and even of the same person at different times.

1 A more scientific definition is:

A vowel is the effect produced upon the ear by sound waves (1) set in motion as air in passing from the lungs comes into contact with the vocal cords, (2) modified in their component parts (the overtones) by the size of the vocal cavities and by the size of their openings, and (3) allowed to pass out unobstructed.