for the belief in the common origin of the human family, which seem to give it the rank of a scientific fact. Thus there is a complete agreement amongst all races of Man, however different they may be in aspect and habits, as to the manner in which the most important functions of the body are performed, the periods at which they take place, the average duration of life, &c.; or, at least, whatever variations may present themselves in these respects between different races, they are not greater than those which are found among individuals of the same race, under different circumstances in regard to climate, food, &c. If the test which has been laid down for the distinction of species (§ 14, note) be really valid, its application to this question removes all doubt; for it is well known, that not only does a mixture of different races produce offspring, but the individuals of the mixed race thus originated are fertile with each other, so that the mixed race is continued,—which is not the case with hybrid races, that originate in a crossing of different species. Moreover, the mixed race is generally equal in personal qualifications, and sometimes even superior, to either of the parent stocks; and, instead of having a tendency to degenerate and die out, its fertility is usually greater, so that it rapidly increases. It is probable that, in many parts of the world,such as South America and Hindostan, the races that have been produced by the intermixture of Europeans with the natives of those countries, will ultimately attain the predominance. Now, even if it should ever occur in Animals, as it sometimes does in Plants (VEGET. PHYSIOL. § 454), that a hybrid race, produced between distinct species, should be able to keep itself up for a few generations, it would be safe to affirm that it would ultimately cease to exist, either being lost altogether, or merging into one of the parent races, by intermixture with it.-Consequently it is evident, from this test, that we are justified in regarding the different races of Man, not as distinct species, but as varieties, which have arisen in course of time, and under the influence of peculiar circumstances, in the same manner as the breeds of the domesticated races (§ 107-114).

140.

The same conclusion has been arrived at from a com

VARIETIES OF HUMAN RACE.

151

parison of the mental characters of the several races; for it has been shown that, however various the degree in which they have been respectively developed, the same elements exist in all; and that individuals of even the most degraded races have exhibited, under the influence of education, the same exalted powers and elevated tendencies, which many of those in whom they are most fully developed, are accustomed to regard as peculiar to themselves.

141. Notwithstanding that we have determined to refer all the existing races of Men to one common origin, yet it would appear that the chief varieties of form must have presented themselves at a very early period. Thus, the hieroglyphic records of Egypt afford testimony, of an older date than that to which any written language carries us back, as to the existence of black and red races at those periods; and the traditions and remains of the Chinese and American nations, seem to carry back their existence as distinct stocks, to an epoch almost equally remote. Although almost every nation has its distinctive peculiarities at the present time, yet it is easy to see that there is a comparatively small number of prevailing types of form, to which they may be referred,—as the different forms of the domesticated animals are referred to certain breeds. Some have thought that these might be reduced to three; and have supposed that they derived their origin from the three sons of Noah, respectively. The more usual division has been into five; the Caucasian, Mongolian, African or Negro, Malay, and American. From a most profound and extensive comparison, however, of their physical characters, languages, and customs, Dr. Prichard sees reason to arrange them under seven classes. These are:-) -1. Those nations (commonly termed Caucasian) which, in the form of their skulls and other physical characters resemble Europeans; this division includes all the European nations, with the exception of the Laplanders and Finnish races, inhabiting the north-eastern portion; and also comprehends several nations in the north of Africa, and in the west and south of Asia: of this race, the Greeks seem to afford the most perfect model.-2. Those nations (commonly termed Mongolian) which bear a resemblance in the figure of

their skulls, and in their general conformation, to the Kalmucks, Mongoles, and Chinese; these occupy the north and east of Asia; and the Laplanders and Finnish races of Europe, and the Esquimaux of America, seem to belong to the same class.-3. The third class includes the native American races (excluding the Esquimaux), which bear a very strong resemblance to one another, both in physical and moral characters, notwithstanding the immense extent of country over which they are distributed. Here, as in the nations of the first division, we find great difference in regard to colour; the temperate regions being inhabited by white races of a florid complexion; whilst the tropical portions of that vast continent are tenanted by tribes of very dark or even black hue.-4. To the fourth class belong only the Hottentot and Bushman races, which inhabit the south of Africa, and differ so strongly from the other nations of that continent, as to require being placed together in a distinct group.-5. The Negro races, including the inhabitants of the African continent, between the parts occupied by the Moorish and other nations of the first class in the north, and those belonging to the Hottentots and Bushmen.-6. ThePapuas, or woolly-haired races, which are diffused through New Guinea and the islands of the Malayan Archipelago.-7. The Alfourou and Australian races, which exhibit the characters of the human species in its most degraded form. These are found in New Holland, and in the interior of some of the larger islands of the Malayan Archipelago.

142. In regard to the evidence which Geology affords, as to the distribution of Man over the globe at former periods of its existence, it is sufficient to observe that it affords a most striking confirmation to the Scriptural statement on the subject; for no fossil remains of Man have ever been found, except in deposits which we have good reason for affirming to be of very recent date, or to be still going on; and wherever the remains of other animals are associated with his, they belong to species at present existing. Thus, Geology and Zoology, so far from being opposed to Revelation, confirm it in these very important particulars ;1. That Man has not been a perpetual inhabitant of this globe, but that his introduction into it took place not many thousand

ORDER QUADRUMANA.

153

years since, probably at the same time with the creation of a large number of other animals; and that no very great change has since been made in its surface.-2. That, notwithstanding the diversities among the races now existing, they may have all originated, and probably did originate, from one common stock.

ORDER II.-QUADRUMANA.

143. The characters upon which this order is founded have been already explained (§ 120); and the points in which it chiefly differs from the preceding, have been adverted to under the last head. It remains to notice some other general characters, however; and to point out how these become modified in the different subdivisions of the order.-In the first place, as already remarked, the Quadrumana are not the only animals possessing opposable thumbs on the feet as well as the hands (§ 126); nor do we find this character to be universally presented by them. In one large division of the order, indeed, we find that the thumbs are possessed by only one pair of the members; but this is the hinder pair, which is thus converted into hands; whilst the front pair of extremities, not being possessed of thumbs, lose the distinctive character of hands. It would be a more correct designation of the whole group, therefore, to term it Pedimana, or foot-handed,-implying that the posterior extremity is converted into a hand, which is a constant character of the order,—rather than Quadrumana, or four-handed, which does not correctly apply to a large portion of it.-We must connect with this description, in order to distinguish these animals from other four-handed Mammals, the characters derived from their teeth; for in them alone do we find all the three kinds present. Yet even this is not an invariable character; for there are certain aberrant forms, which have a dentition that leads us towards the Rodentia, and in which only two kinds of teeth are present. But these so closely resemble the Quadrumana in their general characters, that there can be little doubt of their real affinity to them.

144. There are very marked differences among the different tribes of this order, as to the degree in which they approach Man in their general conformation; some of them bearing a strong resemblance to him in structure, aspect, and gait; whilst others are but little removed from the type of the ordinary Mammals. The difference between the young and adult form is very considerable, especially as regards the shape of the head; this is seen in a very striking manner in the Orang Outan; of which the young specimen has been placed at the head of the order, being supposed to form the nearest approach to Man; whilst the old one, supposed to be altogether a different animal, has been degraded below the level of the Baboons, on account of the great diminution in its facial angle.

145. There are also considerable differences among them, as to food and habits. As a general rule, they may be said to be omnivorous,—that is, disposed to eat anything, or to subsist on a mixed diet. The Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons, search after and devour the eggs of birds, locusts, and even small lizards, with great diligence and appetite; and in confinement they devour animal flesh with great delight. But their natural tastes lead them to mingle their animal prey with fruits or other succulent vegetable substances; and if they are kept from these when in confinement, they become unhealthy.-In regard to their habits of life, too, there is great variety. Some of them live solitarily, or in pairs; others, and these the larger proportion, in societies. Some go in search of their food by day; but the greater proportion are nocturnal in their activity. For the most part, they inhabit trees; but some species live on the ground; and others among rocky and almost inaccessible heights.

146. The order seems to be most properly subdivided into three families, which present well-marked differences in structure, and which are also most curiously limited in their geographical distribution. The first is that of SIMIADE, which includes the Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons, of the Old World; these have the same number of teeth as Man, and for the most part have thumbs on both pairs of extremities. The second is that of