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PENNY MAGAZINE.

No 29.

PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY.

DECEMBER 22, 1832.

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THE LADYE CHAPEL, ST. SAVIOUR'S CHURCH, SOUTHWARK.
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THE LADYE CHAPEL.

Antiquity and architectural beauty have been pleaded as reasons for the preservation and repairing of the LADYE CHAPEL, Southwark. This plea has been regarded by the public; by whom liberal subscriptions have been afforded, to enable its guardians to render it an ornament to the neighbourhood, peculiarly attractive to passengers over London Bridge.

We sincerely venerate hoary antiquity, and we are delighted admirers of architectural beauty: on both these accounts, therefore, we rejoice in the preservation and repair of this ancient chapel. But our minds cherish associations with this building of a far more interesting character as Christians. We recollect that this edifice has been consecrated by the testimony of many noble Martyrs, who, in the days of "Mary the bloody," counted not their lives dear, so that they might finish their course with joy in testifying the gospel of the grace of God, before the cruel and fiend like Romish prelates, by whom these holy confessors of Christ were sentenced to the stake.

A few notices of the last examination of that eminent VOL. I.

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servant of Christ, JOHN BRADFORD, conducted in this Chapel, Jan. 31, 1555, before the Lord Chancellor and several Popish bishops, will not fail to interest our readers.

It will be proper previously to remark, that Bradford was one of the six famous preachers, appointed by King Edward VI, to itinerate through the kingdom, as Home Missionaries, to call the people to attend to the gospel of Christ, as contained in the Holy Scriptures. His letters to London, Cambridge, and other places, show the earnestness with which he laboured as a preacher. Fox speaks of the imprisonment of Bradford thus:-"He was first committed to the Tower, then unto other prisons, out of the which neither his innocency, godliness, nor charitable dealings could purchase him liberty of body, till by death, which he suffered for Christ's cause, he obtained the heavenly liberty of which neither Pope nor Papist shall ever deprive him. From the Tower he came to the King's Bench in Southwark; and after his condemnation, he was sent to the Compter, in the Poultry, in London, in the which two places, for the time he did remain prisoner, he preached twice a day continually, unless sickness hindered him;

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where also the sacrament was often administered; and through his means, the keepers so well did bear with him, such resort of good folks was daily to his lecture, and to the ministration of the sacrament, that commonly his chamber was well nigh filled. Preaching, reading, and praying, was all his whole life. He did not eat above one meal a day, which was but very little when he took it, and his continual study was upon his knees. Very gentle was he to man and child, and in 30 good credit with his keepers, that at his desire, in an evening, when prisoner in the King's Bench in Southwark, he had license, upon his promise to return again that night, to go into London without any keeper, to visit one that was sick, lying by the Steel-yard. Neither did he fail his promise, but returned unto his prison again, rather being before his hour than breaking his fidelity."

The principal charge against Bradford, as it was against most of the martyrs in Mary's reign, was the denial of the Romish doctrine of Transubstantiation. Being seated in judgment in the Chapel, the Lord Chancellor addressed Bradford

"Well, yesterday thou didst maintain false heresy concerning the blessed sacrament, and therefore we gave thee respite till this day to deliberate."

Bradford. "My lord, as I said at the first, I spake nothing of the sacrament but that which you allowed, and therefore reproved it not, nor gave me any thing to deliberate."

Lord Chancellor. "Why, didst thou not deny Christ's presence in the sacrament?”

Bradford. "No, I never denied nor taught, but that to faith whole Christ, body and blood, was as present at the bread and wine to the due receivers."

Lord Chancellor. "Yea, but dost thou not believe that Christ's body naturally and really is there, under the forms of bread and wine?"

Bradford. "My lord, I believe Christ is present there to the faith of the due receiver: as for transub. stantiation, I plainly and flatly tell you, I believe it not."

Here Bradford was called "Diabolus: for we ask no question," said the Lord Chancellor, "of transubstantiation, but of Christ's presence."

Bradford. "I deny not his presence to the faith of "the receivers, but deny that he is included in the bread, or that the bread was transubstantiate."

Bishop of Worcester. “If he be not included, how is he present?"

Bradford. "Forsooth, though my faith can tell how, yet my tongue cannot express it, nor you otherwise than by faith hear it, or understand it."

After much consultation among themselves, and occasional questioning of their prisoner, he was asked by the Bishop of Durham, "When Christ began to be present in the sacrament? whether before the receiver received it, or no?"

Bradford answered, that the question was curious and not necessary; and further said, that as the cup was the New Testament, so the bread was Christ's body to him that received it duly, but yet so that the bread is bread. For, added he, "in all the Scripture ye shall not find this, Non est panis, There is no bread." Much ado was hereabouts, calling Bradford, Heretic; and he desiring them to proceed on in God's name: he looked for that which God appointed for them to do.

Lord Chancellor. "This fellow is now in another heresy of fatal necessity, as though all things were so tied together, that of mere necessity all must come to pass.

But Bradford prayed him to take things as they be spoken, and not wrest them into a contrary sense. "Your lordship," says he, “doth discern betwixt God and

man. Things are not by fortune to God at any time, though to man they seem so sometimes. I speak but as the apostle said, Lord, see how Herod and Pontius Pilate, with the Prelates, are gathered together against thy Christ, to do that which thy hand and counsel hath before ordained for them to do."

"Here the Lord Chancellor began to read the excommunication-and Bradford fell down on his knees, and heartily thanked God that he had counted him worthy to suffer for his name's sake. And so praying to God to give him repentance and a good mind, after the excommunication was read, he was delivered to the sheriff of London, this being purposed of his murderers, that he should be delivered from thence to the earl of Derby, to be conveyed into Lancashire, and there to be burned in the town of Manchester, where he was born. But their purpose was altered, for they burned him in London."

Bradford was not executed until the first day of July; during which time he was harassed by repeated disputations with the Romanists. Bonner, bishop of London, the bishop of Chichester, the archbishop of York, two Spanish friars, one of whom was confessor to King Philip, came to him from day to day, to endeavour to induce him to recant.

Fox has preserved the substance of these disputations. In an answer to an observation of the bishop of Chichester, "He is a heretic, and so none of the church, that doth hold any doctrine against the definition of the church," Bradford emphatically said, "O my lord, will ye condemn to the devil any man that believeth truly the twelve articles of the faith, wherein I take the unity of Christ's church to consist, although in some points he believe not the definition of that which ye call the church? I doubt not but that he which holdeth firmly the articles of our belief, though in other things he dissent from your definition, yet he shall be saved!" 'Yea," "exclaimed the bishop, "is this your divinity?"

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John Leaf, a young man in the twentieth year of his age, an apprentice to a tallowchandler, was executed at the same stake with Bradford, in Smithfield, and for refusing to subscribe to the Popish doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Fox says, "It is reported of the said John Leaf, by one that was in the Compter at the same time, and saw the thing, that after his examination before the bishops, when two bills were sent to him in the Compter in Bread Street, the one containing a recantation, the other his confessions, to know which of them he would put his hand to, first hearing the bill of recantation read unto him, because he could not read himself, he refused it. And when the other was read unto him, which he well liked of, instead of a pen he took a pin, and so pricking his hand, sprinkled the blood upon the said bill, willing the reader thereof to show the bishops, that he had sealed the same bill with his blood already."

Fox describes particularly the resigned and peaceful manner of their deaths, and adds, "Thus they ended their mortal lives, like two lambs, without any alteration of their countenance, being void of all fear, hoping to obtain the prize that they had long run at; to which I beseech Almighty God happily to conduct us, through the merits of Jesus Christ our Lord and Saviour. Amen."

The Engraving represents the interior of the Virgin Mary's Chapel, commonly called the Ladye Chapel, and appended to the ancient collegiate church of St. Saviour's. The roof of the Chapel is divided into nine groined arches, supported by six octangular pillars in two rows, having small circular columns at the four points, forty-two feet long. It is, at present, chiefly used for holding the consistory, or bishop's

court-the north-east corner being expressly fitted up for that purpose, with table, desk, and elevated seat: in this place are also held the visitations for the deanery of Southwark, the other parts having served for the stowage of lumber.

In this chapel is the monument of Lancelot Andrews, who died Bishop of Winchester, in 1626. The effigy, on this monument, represents him in his robes of Prelate of the Garter; but the face is much damaged. He wears a black cap and a small ruff; a book held in his right hand lies on his breast. On a tablet over the tomb (whereon were placed his arms, between two figures of Justice and Fortitude) is the following inscription:

Sept. 21. Die Luna Hora matutina fere quarta,
Lancelotus Andrews, Episcopus Wintoniensis, me-
ritissimum Lumen Orbis Christiani, mortuus est
Ephemeris Laudiani.

Anno Dom. 1626. Etat. suæ 71.

And at the head of the tomb,

Monumentum quod hoc restitutum. Anno 1761.

On the pavement, near Bishop Andrews' tomb, are two ancient stone coffins; one of which is represented in our engraving; but we have no account left, where or at what particular time they were found, nor is it known to whom they belonged. They are unquestionably of great age.

There is also in this Chapel a grave-stone of a bishop in pontificalibus, supposed to have been for the celebrated William of Wykeham, bishop of Lincoln, who was buried in this church.

Of the many vicissitudes this Chapel has undergone since the mass was sung, and the incense smoked, and the candles burnt before the altar of our Lady, the most degrading was its conversion into a bakehouse, in which state it continued for "threescore end some odde yeares." In the year 1607, Mr. H. Wilson, tenant of the Chapel of the Holy Virgin, found himself inconvenienced by a tomb, and applied to the vestry for its removal, which was consented to, he making the place up again in any reasonable sort. In this state it continued till the year 1624, when the parish expended the sum of 2007. on its repair.

THE BIRMINGHAM APPRENTICE.

His Conversion, continued.

THE master of William cherished the senseless prejudices against Dissenters and Methodists, which are entertained by those who do not understand the spirit and claims of true religion. He was totally ignorant of their principles, and indeed of those of the church of England, to which he professed to belong: but about the commencement of the apprenticeship of William, his master was induced, by a pious old lady, a member of the church under the care of the late Rev. Jehoiada Brewer, Independent minister of Livery Street chapel, to go and hear her pastor, and William accompanied him. The large chapel, with its crowded congregation of attentive worshippers, astonished both William and his master; and the sermon, delivered in Mr. Brewer's peculiarly serious and awakening manner, seemed to affect him, while it added to the impression already produced on the mind of William, by the various means already noticed. His master declared that it had done him good; and for that reason, he thought he should go to hear Mr. Brewer, constantly every Sunday. But the sermon was like our Lord's description of the seed sown by the way side, which the fowls of the air devoured: for meeting with a "friend," it was late at night when he returned home, and in a state of senselessness by intoxication! Thus

the imaginary good derived from the sermon was lost, and he was not known ever to go again to hear Mr. Brewer, or to enter a chapel of the Dissenters.

Occasionally, on Sundays, his master went to church in the morning: though usually he stayed at home, posting and settling his accounts, or forming plans for the business of the week. But William, when not detained at work, went regularly to church, as he was required, leading the other boys, he being the senior; and while they were allowed to visit their friends, after the afternoon service, William came home to his solitary apartment of the workshop. That was a place, which would not have been chosen as the most eligible for religious improvement; nevertheless, he found it like Jacob's dreary lodging at Luz, truly a Bethel; and many profitable hours did he spend in it, treasuring up in his mind the saving testimonies of the Divine word.

Although William had been instructed by his mother from his childhood to " 'say his prayers every night,' particularly the Lord's prayer, yet for several years he had neglected that practice, until, after his mind had been affected by the reading of the Holy Scriptures, his conscience would allow him no longer to neglect it. At first he contented himself with saying the Lord's prayer after he had lain down in bed; but in a short time, this would not satisfy his mind. He was necessitated to kneel down to prayer; and more than once, when it had been forgotten, did he rise from his bed to perform that duty. Even this measure of "saying his prayers," was not sufficient for a long period to pacify his conscience; and he then had recourse to the "Whole Duty of Man,” a volume which he obtained from his mother, soon after he had entered on his servitude.

This was a book which William read much, and laboured with considerable care to keep the holy law of God as therein enjoined; by which, however, he was never able to gain satisfaction. The short ejaculations, extracted from the Psalms, and contained in that volume, appeared exceedingly suitable; and William learnt a great portion of them, which he frequently used, during the day and his waking hours, with considerable benefit and delight to his soul. He was accustomed to rise in the morning much earlier than his fellow apprentices, for the opportunity of saying his prayers out of the Whole Duty of Man: but the habit of reading his prayers became tiresome and unsatisfactory, as few of the forms were altogether in accordance with his experience and state of mind. He used, therefore, parts only, and made additions in his own words extemporaneously, according to his necessities; until, wearied with this mode, he found that he could express himself with tolerable accuracy and fluency without that help; and he was delighted with the discovery, that the people of God, whose habits of piety are testified and pourtrayed in the Scriptures, were accustomed thus to pray.

It may also be observed, that the Whole Duty of Man contributed but very little to lead the mind of William into a clear and full view of the gospel; but rather to obscure it, and to strengthen those legal and dark notions of the method of salvation by Christ, which are natural to the newly awakened, but selfrighteous mind. But although not privileged with the friendship of a judicious Christian counsellor, whose rich experience of evangelical truth had qualified him to give solid instruction to a young inquirer after "the good old paths of the prophets and apostles," it is believed that the Lord the Spirit was the gracious and efficient teacher of William.

During the apprenticeship of William, the character of the ministry in the parish church was not reputedly evangelical: nor could William recollect any serious

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impression ever produced upon his mind, by all the sermons he heard in it in the course of seven years' attendance, except in three instances; and those were by visiting ministers. The first two were on one Lord's day, and from the same preacher, an entire stranger to William but the effect of his discourse was never lost. The texts of the minister were, in the morning, "How shall we escape, if we neglect so great salvation?" Heb. ii, 3; in the afternoon, Continue in prayer." Col. iv, 2. The texts and the sermons upon them, could not have been more suitably chosen for the spiritual benefit of William; and it appeared, that the Divine blessing attended the word delivered in a manner unusual in that church. There was something in the illustration of those scripture passages, and in the manner and the tones of the preacher, altogether different from that which was common: and many in the congregation took particular notice of it, so as to make it a subject of conversation for some time; and it was reported that Dr. Croft, the aged curate, declared, that he would never suffer him again to enter his pulpit.

The other instance was by the visit of Dr. Legge, Dean of Windsor, afterwards Bishop of Oxford, brother of the Honourable Mr. Legge, of Aston Hall near Birmingham, and son of the late pious Earl of Dartmouth. The discourse, on behalf of the Blue Coat Charity School, was preached by the Dean, upon that most inviting passage, Luke xi, 13, If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children; how much more shall your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him?”

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Perhaps nothing could have been more appropriate to the exercises of mind experienced by William," than the subject of the text; and the sermon itself was the happy means of leading him to an enlarged apprehension of that momentous and interesting doctrine-the influences of the Holy Spirit upon the mind of man: and it served as a preparation, leading him to read, with an interest altogether new, several hitherto obscure parts of the Bible, especially the epistles of the apostle Paul.

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A sermon preached by Dr. Booker of Dudley, at St. Philip's church, on a week day, at a feast of the Druid's Club, was instructive in a very considerable degree to the mind of William. As his master was a Druid," and proud of the honour of belonging to that society, he gave the apprentices a holiday, for the purpose of seeing the procession: but William was most solicitous to hear the sermon, for the privilege of which, he most willingly paid one shilling and sixpence. The text was 1 Pet. ii, 9, 10, "Ye should show forth the praises of him, who hath called you out of darkness into his marvellous light: who in time past were not a people, but now are the people of God."

The sermon appeared of a singularly novel character; but most truly delightful to William; as it exhibited a striking outline of the ancient system of pagan Druidism practised by our forefathers, as testified especially by Julius Cæsar, to whom the Doctor referred, contrasted with the benevolence, excellence, and happy effects of Christianity. Not having at that time read Cæsar, and not knowing much concerning the religion of the ancient Gauls and Britons, William was enlarged in heart by the contrast, with gratitude to God for the blessings and treasures of the gospel, and determined to know more concerning the horrible system of the "venerable Druids."

Another sermon was the means of considerable edification to William,-"The Star in the East," delivered by Dr. Claudius Buchanan, at St. Mary's chapel, in 1809: the eelebrated discourse which that gentleman published under that title, on his return from India. The

darkness and superstition, the degradation and cruelties of paganism, as stated by the Doctor in his discourse, deeply affected the mind of William: especially his declaring, that "if a poor Soodra were known to read the Shaster to another of his caste, the reader was liable to have his tongue cut out, and the hearer to have melted lead poured in his ears."-William was therefore led to resolve on making some efforts, if it should ever be in his power, in future life, to promote the extensive diffusion of the blessings of divine Christianity.

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The process of the conversion of William to the truth of the gospel of Christ, will be somewhat indicated by a remarkable circumstance, which brought his decision to the test about two years before his apprenticeship terminated. From a near connection of his master, in the way of business, with some patrons of the Stage," it was usual for him to have a number of tickets to the theatre, once or twice in a season, when he commonly gave one to each of the apprentices. William went to the theatre by this means, many times but without any peculiar gratification, and the last play he ever saw, was "the admired Comedy of Speed the Plough." But the profanation of the Divine Name, which was repeatedly used in the performance of that piece, and the frequent appeals to Heaven by the performers, on occasions of a trifling nature, as if for mere embellishment to their sentences, so shocked him, while he remembered the reading of the "Ten Commandments" at church every Lord's day morning, and the solemn responses to them addressed to Almighty God, that he wondered the roof of the building did not fall upon the impious beings, as a judgment upon their profane hypocrisy. He resolved therefore, on that account, that he never would go to another play as long as he lived. The impiety of every play that William had seen, appeared a sufficient reason for his determination; yet his mind was not a little perplexed to understand, how so many of the clergy, whom he saw at the theatre, could sit, and by their presence sanction such daring profanity. But he could decide only for himself; and concluded it best for him to leave the clergy to reconcile their own conduct with the law of God, if it were in their power. Besides, the riotous and filthy behaviour of the "company " in the gallery; their vulgar and indecent shoutings, making the house to resound, and calculated to defile or corrupt the most virtuous and vigorous mind; the daring boldness and the immodest habits of the female performers; and the general appearance of the attendants about the theatre, produced reflections which penetrated his mind with a conviction, that the system of amusement altogether, was not only opposed to the principles of scriptural religion, but extremely pernicious to youth, and in itself highly injurious to society.

In these opinions William was confirmed by the fact, that one of the talented and admired performers, was brother to one of his workfellows: he having, as many others it is known had done, wasted a fortune before he betook himself to the stage for support. By means of this connection, the general habits of the performers in private life were frequently a subject of conversation; and numerous instances of extravagance and profligacy, licentiousness and criminality, of those in that profession, were mentioned among the workmen : and that which formed a fruitful topic of jocular conversation to these men of debased mind relating to the demoralizing influence of the theatre, is amply confirmed by the history of the stage in all countries.

The next season William respectfully and modestly declined the offer of a ticket by his master, observing, that he would rather stay at home. His master appeared to apprehend the reason, but made no reply;

nor did he take any notice of it, until some time afterwards, when he had more play tickets, and then he sent an order into the manufactory to inquire, "How many Methodists are there in the shop, who will not go to the play?" He had said, he knew William was a Methodist, and he would take care that he should not have an opportunity of refusing another ticket. Thus, though he was scrupulous in not going to any place of worship among Dissenters, even on Sunday evenings, when he was allowed some time to go out for two or three hours, to return not later than eight o'clock, yet he was considered and called a Methodist, simply on account of his habitual seriousness.

William was now decided for God; he had laid hold on his everlasting covenant by faith in Christ Jesus, and he was enabled to cast all his care upon the Lord. His master hated his religious spirit: but he reverenced his upright character; and on many occasions he was known to declare, he could trust him with any thing, either for his ability as a workman, or for his honesty as a good lad; and that he was sure he never should have another like him in either of those respects.

We here pause in our narrative of the Birmingham Apprentice; intending, in our new volume, to give some particulars of his subsequent life, which we think our readers will find both interesting and profitable.

REFLECTIONS ON THE WORKS OF NATURE. To whatever part of the habitable globe our attention may be directed, to the frozen regions of the North or the torrid climes of India and the East, we still meet with ceaseless specimens, before unknown, of the unrivalled workmanship of that God whom all creation owns as Lord. But our admiration is especially excited by the various productions of the fruitful soil: it is there that beauty shines in the gayest luxuriance.

From the gaudy tulip with its variegated stains, and blooming blushing rose, to which the proudest beauty at the monarch's court feels flattered on being compared, to the humblest moss that courts the seat of solitude and desolation, all displays perfection. It is here that, lost in astonishment at the countless variety that defies classification, we are compelled by the consciousness of that truth which cannot be gainsayed, to admit the existence and superintending care of that Being, whose offspring alone we are, and by whom we live, move, and breathe.-Johnson.

THE GREATER FOOL.

In a sermon preached by Bishop Hall upon his eightieth birth-day, that faithful preacher relates the following story:- "There was a certain lord who kept a fool in his house, as many a great mán did in those days, for their pleasure; to whom this lord gave a staff, and charged him to keep it, till he should meet with one who was a greater fool than himself; and if he met with such a one, to deliver it over to him. Not many years after, his lord fell sick; and indeed was sick unto death. His fool came to see him, and was told by his sick lord that he must shortly leave him. And whither wilt thou go?' said the fool. Into another world,' said the lord. And when wilt thou come again?-within a month?' 'No.' 'Within a year?' No.' 'When then?' 'Never.' 'Never! - and what provision hast thou made for thy entertainment there whither thou goest?' 'None at all.' 'No!' said the fool; 'none at all? Here, take my staff then. Art thou going away for ever, and hast taken no order, whence thou shalt never return? Take my staff; for I am guilty of no such folly as this!""

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STATISTICS OF YORKSHIRE. YORKSHIRE, the largest county in England, is bounded on the East by the German Ocean; on the West by Lancashire and part of Cheshire; on the North by Durham; and on the South by the counties of Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln. Yorkshire extends about 115 miles from East to West, and about 90 miles from North to South. From its great extent, this county is divided into three parts, called the North Riding, the East Riding, and the West Riding, according to their situation with respect to York; and these are subdivided into 26 hundreds, and 563 parishes, containing 73 market towns, and 2,330 villages.

The North Riding, bounded on the north-east and east by the German Ocean, is remarkable for high hills, called the Eastern Moorlands, which occupy a dreary space of about 30 miles from east to west, and 15 miles from north to south, penetrated indeed by many beautiful and fruitful dales, particularly those of Reyesdale, Wensleydale, Eskdale, and Bilsdale, which contain each from 10,000 to 15,000 acres. Though the air of this division is generally cold, arising from the great elevation of the Moorlands, computed at from 1,400 to 1,500 feet above the level of the sea, it is considered as the most healthy in the county of York. In this division are the ancient boroughs of Malton, Northallerton, Richmond, Scarborough, and Thirsk.

The East Riding, bounded on the east by the Ocean, though less conspicuously marked by the bolder features of nature than the other parts of the county, contains scenes of great magnificence, especially where the sea or the Humber enters into view. This part is distinguished for its range of hills called the "York Wolds." Their greatest height is not supposed to exceed 600 feet; but their extent is computed at about 400,000 acres. Half a century ago, barley and oats were the principal kinds of grain used in this district of the county; but within that period, vast inclosures have been made, its dreary swamps have been cultivated, and wheaten bread alone now forms the food of servants and labourers. The East Riding includes the ancient boroughs of Beverly, Hedon, and Hull, the latter of which, situated on the Humber, is the grand emporiuin of foreign trade for that part of the kingdom, and is reckoned the fourth commercial port in England.

The West Riding is much more extensive than the other divisions of Yorkshire, being supposed to contain 1,586,000 statute acres. Here are situated the ancient boroughs of Aldborough, Boroughbridge, Knaresborough, Pontefract, and Ripon: but many of its commercial towns far exceed them in population. Three districts are noted in this division: the level, the diversified, and the mountainous: this latter contains the three remarkable mountains of Pennigart, Ingleborough, and Wharnside, being estimated at the heights of 3,930, 3,987, and 4,052 feet respectively.

This division of Yorkshire may safely be pronounced one of the greatest manufacturing districts in the world. It possesses, indeed, very great local advantages: on every side the raw materials abound, and coals are plentiful, consequently they are cheap. The manufactures carried on at Leeds, Wakefield, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, and populous places adjacent, comprise broad and narrow cloths of all qualities, shalloons, calimancoes, and flannels, with every kind of woollen goods. From Sheffield, cutlery and plated goods, and solid silver plate, are exported in large quantities to all parts of the globe. In the vicinity of most of the above places, the soil was originally little better than waste; but from the increase of population,

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