name. See Fleury, vol. xii. p. 385" (Jortin, Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iii. p. 118).

Marcel Cervinus, who was pope in 1555 for only twenty-two days, would not change his name on assuming the tiara (see Ambassades de Noailles, Leyde, 1763, tome iv. pp. 301-314).

68. THE PROPERTIES OF THE LOADSTONE WERE KNOWN IN 1260.* "A little before this time (A.D. 1213) was born Brunello Latius, See also ARTS. 262, at Florence, who was the reviver of letters in Italy, and was orator, 347. poet, historian, philosopher, theologian, and politician. Dante was his disciple. This author speaks of the Mariner's Compass, and of the use of the loadstone forty years before A.D. 1300, which is the time usually fixed for that discovery. See Hist. de l'Acad. iv. 462. Bayle, art. Dante. Reinezius de Deo Ludovellico; and the note of Crenius in his Museum Philolog. ii. 343" (Jortin, Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iii. p. 308).

Le Grand, Fabliaux ou Contes, Paris, 1781, 12mo, tome ii. pp. 185-188. Salverte, Sciences occultes, Paris, 8vo, 1843, pp. 453-457.

69. CELEBRATION OF MASS IN THE VERNACULAR TONGUES

FORBIDDEN.

"So early as the year 879 we find the pope prohibiting the celebration of the Mass in Sclavonia in the vulgar tongue of that country. You may preach to the people,' said he in their mother tongue, but in the more solemn exercise of worship I require you to use the Latin or Greek only as is the practice in every church in the world.' On which epistle and injunction M. Fleury (Hist. Eccl. tome ii. p. 451), remarks that this Pope, John VIII., was probably ignorant that the Syrians, Egyptians, and Armenians always performed all the services of religion in their mother tongue" (Ranken's History of France, vol. ii. p. 195).

70. PENANCE INFLICTED FOR A THIRD MARRIAGE.

"Halijar, a famous canonist of the 9th century, collected and arranged the maxims of the fathers, and the canons of the Church, in six books, of which the last is collected from the records of the Church of Rome, by which, among other things, a layman who should contract a third marriage is condemned to three weeks' fasting; but for a fourth or fifth marriage, the punishment is twenty-one weeks' fasting. See Coll. Canisii, tome v." (Ranken's History of France, vol. ii. pp. 202, 203).

See also

72, 181.

Second and third marriages are allowed by Augustine (Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. ii. p. 357, Dublin edit.) But even second marriages were forbidden by Tertullian (Middleton's Introductory Discourse to Miraculous Powers, p. lx. 4to, 1749). This is treated by Butler (Lives of Saints, ii. 86) as one of the Montanist heresies; but according to Taylor (Liberty of Prophesying, p. 209, 2nd edit. 8vo, 1702), Athenagoras also forbade second marriages. Respecting second marriages see Thrupp's Historical Law Tracts, p. 43, 8vo, 1843. The Bishop of Lincoln (in pp. 368-379 of his Illustrations, 3rd edit. 1845, 8vo) has noticed Tertullian's progressive absurdities on the subject of second marriages, and shows (p. 376) that at one time he objected to all marriages. St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, without positively condemning second marriages, is opposed to them (Hist. Litt. de la France, tome i. part ii. p. 344). Before the Reformation, the honour of a garland was not allowed in England to a widow at her burial, if she had married more than once. So says Weever, though I know not on what authority (see Drake's Shakespeare, 1817, 4to, i. 240). The marriages of widows are estimated at only half of those of widowers (Sadler, On Population, vol. ii. p. 326; and compare Quetelet sur l'Homme, Paris, 1835, tome i. pp. 297, 298). It would seem that about a sixth of the population is supplied by second and third marriages (see Malthus, On Population, 1826, 6th edit., vol. i. pp. 476-477). If a man married a virgin, and on her death married another virgin, or if one of his wives had been a widow, such offender was by the canon law guilty of bigamy; and even by our own law incapable of benefit of clergy (Blackstone's Commentary, iv. 164).

71. ATTEMPTS OF COUNCILS TO PUT AN END TO THE
DIFFERENT ORDEALS, ETC.

"Various attempts were made, and especially by the influence of ARTS. 64, the Church, to abolish the absurd modes of appeal, viz. the proofs by duel, the cross, &c. Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, wrote against them. The Assembly of Attiguy (A.D. 822) prohibited the trial of the cross as a profanation. The trial by cold water was prohibited by the Council of Worms, A.D. 829. The Council of Valence, A.D. 855, ordained that the proof by duel, though authorised by custom should be no longer tolerated: that the victor who killed his antagonist should be subjected to the law against homicide and that the deceased should be deprived of burial and of the prayers of the Church" (Ranken's History of France, vol. ii. p. 256).

Lingard's History and Antiquities of Anglo-Saxon Church, vol. ii. pp. 131-139, 8vo, 1845. Madan's Thelyphthora, vol. iii. p. 144, 8vo, 1781. See some judicious remarks on Ordeals in Paris and Fonblanque's Medical Jurisprudence, 8vo, 1823, vol. i. pp. vii.-ix. In A.D. 829, ordeals were forbidden not by a Council but by a Parliament (Fleury, Histoire ecclés. x. 286). Fleury, however, adds that this was probably the consequence of a treatise written against them by Agobard of Lyons (p. 287). For some account of this work of Agobard, see Histoire littéraire de la France, iv. 577, and in Colonia, Histoire littéraire de la Ville de Lyon, tome ii. p. 104, Lyon, 1730, 4to. The Benedictines say that toward the end of the 11th century, ordeals went a little out of fashion (Histoire littéraire de la France, tome vii. p. 7).

72. ORDEALS APPROVED OF BY COUNCILS.

ARTS. 64,

71, 181.

"The kind of criminal trial called the Judgment of God, the trial See also of the cross, of boiling water, &c. are unequivocal evidences of the influence of superstition and credulity on the judgment and understanding of all ranks, learned and unlearned. Some feeble attempts were made in the reign of Louis the Mild to abolish. them; but they continued to prevail, and were approved and confirmed by the Council of Narbonne, A.D. 902; of Tours, A.D. 925; and of Rheims, A.D. 991" (Ranken's History of France, vol. ii. pp. 283, 284).

At a Council in A.D. 1078, held at Toussaint, Berenger recanted his opinions, but his sincerity being doubted, many bishops of the council demanded that he should confirm them by the ordeal of hot iron. Berenger consented, but Gregory VII. would not allow it to take place (Histoire littéraire de la France, viii. 210); and see at p. 35 another instance in the same century, of its being ordered by a bishop. See an account of the extraordinary proceedings at Florence, A.D. 1067, in Fleury, Histoire ecclésiastique, xiii. 177-180. For another instance in 11th century, see Colonia, Histoire littéraire de la Ville de Lyon, tome ii. p. 175, Lyon, 1730, 4to.

73. LONGEVITY OF A HORSE.

"Flodoard mentions a horse-A.D. 931-which had lived one hundred years" (Ranken's History of France, ii. 315).

Bruce (Travels, 1790, vol. iv. p. 522) denies that wild horses are to be found in Arabia Deserta. There are very few in Oman (Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, i. 303). 1. There is a curious dissertation on the "Ancient History of Horses" in Michalis

See also
ART. 138.

See also ARTS. 99, 130, 133.

(Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 8vo, 1814, vol. ii. pp. 431-514). 2. Respecting the custom of blessing horses see Middleton's Letters from Rome, 8vo, 1742, 5th edit. pp. xvii-xix, and 141-143. The Dahomans always hold the rider on horseback (see Duncan's Travels in Western Africa, 8vo, 1847, vol. i. p. 222, 223, 301, 302).

74. THE FIRST CLOCK IN FRANCE WHICH MOVED WITH WHEELS.

"Gerbert, who became pope by the name of Sylvester II., a native of France, is said to have made some astronomical machines, and particularly a clock; the first which moved with wheels made in France" (Ranken's History of France, ii. 320).

Whewell says clocks were invented by Roger Bacon, or at all events known to him (History of the Inductive Sciences, 8vo, 1847, vol. ii. p. 161). Water clocks were invented by Heron in 2nd century (see Duten's Inquiry into the Origin of Discoveries, p. 355, 8vo, 1769). Henry's History of Great Britain, vol. viii. pp. 279282, 4th edit. 8vo, 1805. Beckmann's History of Inventions, vol. i. pp. 135-140, 8vo, 1814, and vol i. pp. 419-462. Halliwell's Thornton Romances, p. 302, Camd. Soc. 1844. Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII., by Nicolas, 8vo, 1827, pp. 310-311. The Benedictines say that clocks on wheels were not known until some centuries after Sylvester II. (see Histoire littéraire de la France, vi. 609). McCulloch (Dictionary of Commerce, 8vo, 1849, p. 291), says, on the authority of Hutton, "the first pendulum clock made in England was in the year 1662, by one Fromantel, a Dutchman."

75. COUNCILS WHICH ORDERED THE CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY. "In the Council of Bourges, A.D. 1031, it was ordained that priests who cohabit with their wives shall be only readers and chanters ; and that deacons and subdeacons shall not in future be allowed to keep either wives or concubines. The Council of Rouen, A.D. 1072, ordained that priests, deacons, and subdeacons who are married shall not enjoy any church revenues, nor dispose of them. The Council of Rome, A.D. 1074, being the second year of the pontificate of Gregory VII., declared that all the sacerdotal orders should abstain from marriage, and that such of them as were already married should immediately abandon their wives or relinquish the priestly office" (Ranken's History of France, vol. iii. pp. 168, 169).

Beckmann (History of Inventions, 2nd edit. 8vo, 1814, vol. iv. p. 160) says, "the clergy frequently styled themselves the cocks of

the Almighty;" hence weathercocks on churches. Du Radier, Récréations historiques, tome ii. pp. 181-182. Fleury, Troisième Discours in Histoire ecclés., tome xiii. p. 31, Paris, 1758, 12mo. Montesquieu has well observed, that in religion as in morals, men love to make sacrifices: hence celibacy has been most practised in warm countries, where from the prevalence of libidinous feelings it is most onerous (Esprit des Lois, livre xxv. chap. iv., Œuvres de Montesquieu, Paris, 1835, p. 417).

76. ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE WALDENSES AND ALBIGENSES.

66

Albigenses became lately their common name, from the great number of them who inhabited the city Alby, and the district of Albigeois between the Rhone and the Garonne; but that name was not general and confirmed till after the Council of Alby, a.d. 1254, which condemned them. . . . From their books, also, it is proved that they existed as Waldenses before Peter Waldus, who preached about A.D. 1160. Perrin, who writes their history, had in his possession a New Testament in the Vallese language, written on parchment, in a very ancient letter; and a book, entitled in their language, Qual cosa sia l' Antechrist en datte de l'era millicent et vingt,' which carries us back at least twenty years before Waldo. Another book entitled 'Le Noble Leiçon' is dated A.D. 1100 (see Nicholas Viguier, Histoire ecclésiastique. Claude Seiszel, p. 5. Jean Paul Perrin, Histoire des Albigeois. Dupin, 12th century, chap. vi.) A copy of the Tract Le Noble Leiçon' was lodged in the University of Cambridge, dated A.D. 1100, and another in the library at Geneva. (See Leger, Histoire gén. des Vaudois, chap. vi.) Their enemies confirm their great antiquity. Remerus Sacco, an inquisitor, and one of the most cruel against this people, who lived not a century after Waldo, admits that the Waldenses flourished five hundred years before that preacher. Grelzer, the Jesuit, who also wrote against the Waldenses, and had examined the subject fully, not only admitted their great antiquity, but declared his firm belief that the Thoulousians and Albigenses condemned in the year 1177 and 1178 were no other than Waldenses. See La Doctrine des Vaudois, par Jacques Capel, p. 7" (Ranken's History of France, vol. iii. pp. 200, 201).

Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe (Bohn's edit. 8vo, 1846), vol. i. p. 154. Peignot's Dictionnaire des Livres condamnés au feu, 8vo, 1806, vol. i. p. 12. Respecting the antiquity of the Waldenses, see Raynouard Choix des Poésies des Troubadours, tome ii. p. cxxxvii. 8vo, 1817, and for books on them, p. cxxxix.; and for their poetry, pp. 73-133. Calamy's Historical Account of my own Life, vol. i. pp. 216-219, edited by Rutt, 8vo,