him up to his death. One of their children, Are, was noted for his knowledge of German and Latin and of jurisprudence, was highly popular, and was "Lagman" or chief judicial officer of the island from 1530 to 1541. At length, in 1548, on the death of Gissur Einarsson, whose power and popularity Areson appears to have been fearful of coping with, the storm which had been long collecting burst. The king again summoned Areson to Copenhagen; the bishop sent no excuse or reply of any kind, but made an armed incursion into the Protestant diocese of Skalholt, to which Martin Einarsson, a Reformer, who had spent nine years in England, from the age of nine to that of eighteen, had been appointed. In 1549, the king, in return for his continued contumacy, declared him an outlaw, and he replied by sending two of his sons, Are the Lagman and Biorn, on another expedition against Skalholt, from which they returned with Bishop Martin their prisoner. Areson treated his episcopal captive with much indignity, employing him for some days to beat stockfish. He then took him with him to the town of Skalholt and made use of him to enforce its surrender. There he re-consecrated the cathedral, which he assumed to have been desecrated by Protestant service, and ordered the body of Gissur Einarsson to be taken up from its grave and thrown out of consecrated ground. While he was carrying on these proceedings, he sent a letter to the King of Denmark couched in a very loyal strain, and endeavouring to give a favourable impression of his acts. He is reported at the same time to have sent messengers to the Emperor of Germany and the King of England to offer them the possession of Iceland, on condition of their pledging themselves to maintain the Roman Catholic faith in it; but there was then so much intercourse between England and Iceland, that it is difficult to believe that Areson could have been ignorant that Edward VI. was in favour of the Reformation. Before an answer could arrive from either the fate of Iceland was decided at the battle of Saudafell, in which Areson and his sons, who were at the head of a force of about ninety men, and had been ravaging the estates of a landholder of the name of Dade Gudmundsson,were attacked by Gudmundsson and the royal party, consisting of from sixty to eighty men. Gudmundsson having offered pardon to his opponents on condition of their returning to their allegiance, took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the deliberation of some of them on his offer to attack the remainder, whom he routed and drove into a churchyard. Areson and his sons retired into the church and shut the doors, and when they were burst open, the bishop was found on his knees before the altar in a priest's habit. No person was slain in the encounter, though many were wounded. 66 Areson and his sons were taken to Skalholt, where they were brought to trial and condemned, refusing to answer to the accusation. Legally, they ought to have been reserved to the next Althing or annual meeting, but their captors were apprehensive of a rescue; and while deliberating on what course they should adopt, an old priest observed that "the axe and the ground would keep them in the safest custody." As Martin Einarsson, who had been released by the result of the battle, immediately assented, that opinion prevailed, and the prisoners were ordered to prepare for death. Are the Lagman was offered his life if he would promise not to attempt to revenge the day, but he refused; and Areson, on receiving a similar offer, replied, My sons followed me, and I will follow them." The bishop and his two sons were accordingly beheaded on the 7th of November, 1550. The peasantry some time after beset Christian Skrivere, who had been one of the most active agents in their death, and killed him with his son and twelve of his servants, one of whom had been the executioner, at the village of Kirkiubolum. Sixteen of the murderers of Christian fled to England, where it is said they were received and protected by Queen Mary; the remainder were not pursued with much activity by the King of Denmark, who apparently considered that the captors of Areson would have done better to keep him prisoner till they should receive his orders. After his death Protestantism was easily established. Areson is considered the best Icelandic poet of his time. He has also the honour of being the first introducer of the art of printing into his native island. About 1528 he invited thither from Sweden John Matthiæ, a priest, to assist him as a Latin secretary; and he also employed him as a printer, Matthiæ being well skilled in that art, which finally turned out the most effectual means of promoting the spread of Protestantism in Iceland. In 1530, Areson caused to be printed at Bredebolstad a " Manuale Pastorum," the existence of which is only known from its being matter of record, all copies of the book having disappeared. A poem entitled "Pinslargrátr," or "Lamentation for the Passion," and a paraphrase of the 51st Psalm by Areson are inserted in Thorlaksson's "Visabok," published in 1612. Various poems by him relating to the different occurrences of his life are given in Harboe's 66 History of the Reformation in Iceland," but it must be owned that it is difficult for a foreign reader to perceive in them any traces of the poetical genius attributed to the author by Icelandic critics. (Harboe, Afhandling om Reformationen i Island in Skrifter som udi det Kiöbenhavnske Selskab af Lærdoms og Videnskabers Elskere ere fremlagte og oplæste, v. 221, &c., vii. 1, &c.; Finnus Johannæi, or Finn Jonsson, Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiæ, ii. 644—724.) T. W. 66 ARESTI, FLORIA'NO, organist of the metropolitan church of Bologna, was born there towards the end of the seventeenth century. He produced the following operas: Crisippo," at Ferrara in 1710; "Inganno si vince," at Bologna in 1710; "Enigma disciolta," at Bologna in 1710; "Costanza in cimento colla Crudeltà," at Venice in 1712; "Il Trionfo di Pallade in Arcadia," at Bologna in 1716. He died in 1719. (Fantuzzi, Scrittori Bolognesi.) E. T. ARETE US ('Aperaios), one of the most valuable of the ancient Greek physicians whose works are still extant, is generally supposed to have been a native of Cappadocia. Nothing is known of the events of his life, nor have we any direct testimony respecting his date, on which point there has been an extraordinary difference of opinion among modern critics, for, while Vossius thinks that he was a very ancient writer and lived long before the period of the Roman emperors, others have supposed that he wrote as late as the fourth or fifth century after Christ. It can, however, be proved indirectly, but with tolerable certainty, that both these conjectures are unfounded, and that Aretæus probably lived in the first or second century after Christ. Vossius founds his opinion on the fact of Aretæus having used the Ionic dialect in his writings; but this is by no means sufficient to prove his point, as Arrian wrote his "Indica" in the same dialect in the second century after Christ. Besides, it is only necessary to examine the sense of his works, as well as their language, in order to see that there is abundant internal evidence to prove that Aretæus must have written after the beginning of the Christian æra. He not only refers to the famous antidote of Mithridates, but also to the Theriaca Andromachi (which he calls by the names ἡ δι' ἐχιδνῶν, and ἡ διὰ Onpiwv), the inventor of which lived in the reign of the Emperor Nero, A. D. 54-68. From his never mentioning Galen, it seems probable that he lived before him, that is, before the middle of the second century after Christ; and though it seems very strange that Galen, who has quoted so many insignificant physicians, should not once mention Aretæus, and therefore it may be argued that the works of Aretæus were not extant in Galen's time, yet it is equally strange (although undoubtedly true ), that many other ancient physicians passed over the writings of Aretæus, as if apparently unknown to them. In fact both his works and his personal history seem to have lain in singular obscurity in ancient times, insomuch that he is only alluded to by three ancient writers the author of a work ascribed to Dioscorides, Aëtius, and Paulus Ægineta. Though no particulars of his life are known, it has been observed that, from his mentioning Falernian and other Italian wines, he seems to have either travelled, or to have lived in a country that enjoyed a free communication with Italy and Rome. It has been much disputed to which medical sect (if to any) Aretæus belonged. Le Clerc, Wigan, Haller, and others suppose that he belonged to the Pneumatici; and indeed it is impossible to overlook the traces of the doctrines of this sect that are found in his works. Petit, Osterhausen, and Ackermann, however, think that the passages brought forward in support of this opinion are not sufficiently conclusive to prove the point. Sprengel takes a middle course, and tries to reconcile the two opinions by supposing that he was brought up in the principles of the Pneumatici, and afterwards embraced those of the Eclectici. Perhaps, however, he may more properly be said to have belonged to no sect, or, in other words, to have been an Eclectic (as Hecker says) in the highest sense of the term, meaning, not a person who ranked himself among the "Eclectici," but one who followed implicitly the doctrines of no particular school, but chose from different sects whatever opinions he thought most agreeable to truth. With respect to his use of the Ionic dialect, it can hardly be supposed that this was quite natural to him; probably it was rather adopted in imitation of the style of the Father of Medicine, in the same way as Arrian is supposed to have imitated Ctesias in his "Indica," mentioned above; and as a few years ago a medical treatise was published at Athens by a modern Greek, written in the Ionic dialect from the same motives. His style has been very much admired, particularly for the graphic liveliness of his descriptions; and his chapter on Kavσos, or "Brain-Fever," has been made the subject of one of Sir Henry Halford's elegant Essays. Aretæus appears to have written some medical works on Fevers, Surgery, Pharmacy, and the Diseases of Women, which are no longer extant. His only remaining work consists of eight books: two Пepì Altıŵv kai Σημείων Οξέων Παθῶν (“ On the Causes and Symptoms of Acute Affections"); two Пepl Αἰτιῶν καὶ Σημείων Χρονίων Παθῶν (“ On_the Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Affections"); two Пeрi eрareías 'O¢éwv Пabŵv ("On the Cure of Acute Affections"); and two Пepl epareías Xpovíwv Пalŵv (“On the Cure of Chronic Affections"). The arrangement of the work is very inconvenient, as the description of the different diseases is separated from the treatment; some of the chapters are lost, and the text is still in rather an unsatisfactory state. The following sketch of the contents of the valuable work of Aretæus, and of his practice, is by the late learned Dr. Becker of Berlin. "Aretaus regarded a knowledge of the structure and functions of the body as a necessary step towards the study of disease; "He frequently employed emetics, purgahis anatomical remarks, however, betray tives, and clysters; and he was aware that sufficiently the imperfect state of this sci- emetics not only evacuate the contents of the ence in his time. He concurred with the stomach and intestines, but derive a great Pneumatic physicians and the Stoic philoso- part of their efficacy from the shock which phers, in believing the heart to be the prin- the act of vomiting produces in those parts. ciple of life and strength,' and the seat of He was fond of blood-letting in chronic as the soul. He gave a full account of the dis- well as acute diseases, but cautious with retribution of the vena portarum, and regarded gard to the quantity of blood which he took all veins as having their origin in the liver; away: he advises the blood to be stopped he also was aware of the numerous commu- before fainting supervenes; and recommends nications which exist in various parts of the not to take away too much blood at one bleedvenous system, which led him to refute the ing in apoplexy. He also mentions the pracnotion that particular veins in the arm are tice of opening a vein on the back of the connected with particular internal organs, hand; and he practised the operation of and the consequences which were drawn arteriotomy. He employed cupping-glasses from this notion as to blood-letting. Are- and leeches; and he is the first author who tæus looked upon the liver as the organ des- mentions blistering with cantharides: as he tined to prepare the blood, and the spleen as recommends this practice as preferable to fitted to purify that fluid. He regarded both other rubefacients, without mentioning it as the stomach and colon as organs of digestion, having been formerly in use, it appears proand bestowed much attention on the morbid bable that we are indebted to him for this affections of the latter organ. He knew that most important remedy; nor had the tenthe kidneys had a glandular structure. He dency which it sometimes has to injure the stated the nerves to be the organs of sensation functions of the urinary organs escaped his and motion. The fact that injuries of the observation; he enjoins, therefore, milk to head are apt to produce paralytic affections be drank in large quantities before the blister on the opposite side did not escape his ob- is applied. servation, and, in order to account for it, he stated that the nervous fibres in the brain form a decussation in the shape of the Greek letter X, whilst the nerves arising from the spinal marrow proceed directly to the organ for which they are designed. Notwithstanding these curious remarks on the functions of the nervous system, Aretæus evidently did not make any clear distinction between the nervous and tendinous parts; the latter are undoubtedly alluded to, when he says that, besides the nerves proceeding from the brain, there are others which pass from one bone to another, and are the principal sources of motion. 66 The descriptions which Aretaus has given of the diseases to which the human economy is subject are accurate delineations, evidently taken from nature, and distinguished by a peculiar liveliness, elegance, and conciseness of diction. He is thought to have excelled all ancient authors, not even excepting Hippocrates, in the art of describing diseases, and may still be regarded as a model in this species of literature. His account of epilepsy, tetanus, acute and chronic headaches, hæmoptysis, and causus, or burning fever, are peculiarly happy specimens of his manner of writing. "In the treatment of diseases, Aretaus regarded experience as the best guide (ayaon didáσkaλos reípn), and he repeatedly refers to the necessity of following the hints which nature gives to the physician. His methods of treatment seem to have been energetic where it appeared necessary, but always simple; and he was averse to that farrago of medicines, to the use of which some of his contemporaries were addicted. VOL. III. "Scarcely any internal medicines were employed by Aretæus in the treatment of acute diseases; but he paid strict attention to diet and regimen: among his dietetical prescriptions, those on the use of the different kinds of milk deserve to be mentioned. In treating chronic diseases he more frequently had recourse to the aid of medicines; we find him prescribing diuretics, sudorifics, and several of the compound stimulating preparations which were in vogue in his time. One of the substances he most frequently resorted to is castoreum, which he regarded as very efficacious in various affections of the nervous system." (Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, ii. 302., "Aretæus.") The work of Aretæus was published for the first time at Venice, 1552, 4to., in a Latin translation made by J. P. Crassus from a very corrupt and mutilated MS., with the title " Aretai Libri Septem nunc primum e tenebris eruti et in Latinum Sermonem conversi a J. P. Crasso." It is often bound up with the same editor's translation of Rufus Ephesius "De Appellationibus Partium Corporis Humani," which was published in the same place, size, and date. The first Greek edition of Aretæus is that by J. Goupyl, Paris, 1554, 8vo., which is more complete than the preceding Latin edition; it is very beautifully printed, and is said by Choulant to be very scarce. It is often bound up with Goupyl's Greek edition of "Rufus Ephesius," published in the same place, size, and date. A Latin translation executed from this edition (and, as it is supposed, by Goupyl himself), was published in Ꮓ the same year at Paris, 8vo., and has been several times reprinted. An edition in Greek and Latin was published at Vienna (Augusta Vindelicorum) in 1603, fol., edited by G. Henisch, which is a handsomely printed book, but is not well spoken of in any other respect. In 1723 a very splendid edition was published at the Clarendon press at Oxford, in folio, the intrinsic critical merits of which are equal to its handsome appearance. It was edited by J. Wigan, who corrected the text, made a new Latin version, prefixed some learned and valuable dissertations, and added some critical notes and emendations. There is also a good Index Rerum, and a very complete Index Verborum by Maittaire. Choulant considers this edition to be scarce, as only three hundred copies were printed; in England, however, it is not unfrequently to be met with, and at a moderate price. In 1731, Boerhaave published a Greek and Latin edition in folio, at Leiden. Great part of the work had been printed off in 1719, and therefore no use was made of Wigan's text and translation; it contains, however, Petit's Commentary, (part only of which had been previously published at London, 1726, 4to.,) Triller's Conjectures and Emendations; and some short notes by Jos. Scaliger. The last edition of the Greek text of Aretaus is that which forms the twenty-fourth volume of Kühn's Collection of Greek Medical Writers, Leipzig, 1828. It contains Wigan's text, Latin translation, dissertations, and notes; Triller's and Petit's commentaries; Maittaire's index; Ackermann's "Historia Literaria," extracted from Harles' edition of Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Græca;" and an appendix of various readings. Dr. Ermerins, of Middelburg in Zeeland, mentions in the preface to his edition of Hippocrates, "De Rat. Vict. in Morb. Acut." Leiden, 1841, 8vo., that he has for some time been preparing a new edition of Aretæus, which (judging from the works that he has already edited) is likely to be superior to any of the existing editions. A Latin translation of Aretæus is inserted in H. Stephens' Medicæ Artis Principes," Paris, fol., 1567, and also forms one of the volumes of Haller's Collection of Latin Medical Writers, published at Lausanne, 1771, 8vo. His works were translated into English by John Moffatt, London, 8vo. [1785 or 1786], and the first four books by T. F. Reynolds, London, 8vo., 1837. There is also a French translation by Reynaud, Paris, 1834, 8vo. an Italian one by F. Puccinotti, Firenze, 1836, 8vo. ; and a German one by F. O. Dewez, Vienna, 1790, 1802, 8vo. Several other works on the subject of Aretæus and his writings are mentioned by Choulant in his "Handbuch der Bücherkunde für die Aeltere Medicin,” Leipzig, 1841, 8vo. 66 A further account of the anatomical and therapeutical opinions of Aretæus may be | found in Le Clerc, Hist. de la Méd.; Wigan, ARETÆ'US, DANIEL, a German sculptor of Corvey in Westphalia, who worked in 1455, according to Weinwich (KunstensHistorie i Danmark), at the court of Denmark. Aretæus is supposed to have been the artist of the so called Oldenburg horn. (Nagler, Neues Allgemeines Künstler Lexicon.) R. N. W. ARETA PHILA ('Apeтapíλα), a woman of Cyrene, who lived about the year B. C. 85. Plutarch, in his treatise on the virtues of women, gives a minute account of her, and says that she was worthy to be placed by the side of the greatest heroines of antiquity. She was a daughter of Æglator and married to Phædimus. Her beauty was as great as her virtue, and she was, at the same time, a woman of considerable knowledge; but the most prominent feature in her character was patriotism. Nicocrates, who at the time had set himself up as tyrant of Cyrene, murdered the husband of Aretaphila, and then compelled her to become his wife. Although the tyrant did every thing to win her affections, she could never forget the murder of Phædimus and the ferocious atrocities which the tyrant committed upon her fellowcitizens, and she resolved to deliver her country from its oppressor by poisoning him. She endeavoured, in the meantime, to form a conspiracy, that the men of Cyrene might be ready to act, as soon as Nicocrates should be got rid of; but her scheme was betrayed and reached the ears of Calbia, the tyrant's mother. Aretaphila was tried and tortured, but nothing could get a confession from her, and the manner in which she defended herself was so satisfactory, that Nicocrates was deceived, and acquitted her, though he refused in future to live with her. A short time afterwards, however, he returned to her, and again endeavoured to win her favour. She did not resist, but kept her object steadily in view, and as she considered a personal misfortune much less than a public calamity, she introduced her daughter, a very beautiful girl, to Leander, the tyrant's brother, and a voluptuous youth, who prevailed on Nicocrates to allow him to marry her. Aretaphila, her daughter, and her friends, now exerted all their influence with Leander; they endeavoured to rouse his love of liberty, and to excite his fear of his brother. The consequence was that Leander had his brother assassinated by one of his slaves; but instead of restoring Cyrene to freedom, he began to act himself as tyrant. Aretaphila did not venture to oppose him openly, but continued to secure his esteem and confidence. At last she found an opportunity of inducing an African chief of the name of Anabus, to make war upon Cyrene, and when the city was apparently in great danger she contrived to bring about an interview between Leander and Anabus, at which the former appeared unarmed and without any attendants, except Aretaphila. Leander was made prisoner according to the plan of Aretaphila, and delivered up to the Cyrenæans. His grandmother Calbia was burned alive, and he himself was sewed up in a sack, and thrown into the sea. From this moment Aretaphila, although the Cyrenæans wished her to join her fellow-citizens in the government of the republic, withdrew to private life, and spent her last years in retirement with her friends. (Plutarch, De Mulierum Virtutibus, p. 255, &c. ed. Frankfurt.) L. S. A'RETAS ('Apéras), the name of several kings of Arabia, who occur in ancient history during the period from about B. c. 170 to A. D. 40. The following are those who are known in history. ARETAS I. lived about B. c. 170, and was a contemporary of Jason, the high-priest of the Jews, but nothing further is known of him. (2 Maccab. v. 8.) ARETAS II., a contemporary of Alexander Jannæus, king of Judæa, (B. c. 106-79). When Gaza was besieged by Alexander, Aretas assisted the inhabitants. He is probably the same Aretas against whom Antiochus XII. of Syria, surnamed Dionysus, made war, about B. C. 90. Antiochus at first gained some advantages, but as he was endeavouring to profit by them, he was slain. After the death of Antiochus, Aretas reigned over Cole-Syria, being called to the government by the party who were in possession of Damascus, and who hated Ptolemæus Mennæus. Hereupon Aretas made an expedition against Judæa, and defeated Alexander Jannæus in a battle near a place called Adida, but a treaty was concluded between the two kings, and Aretas withdrew from Judæa. There are .some coins of Damascus, on which we read the name of a King Aretas, who is surnamed Philellen (Þéλλŋv), a circumstance which strongly favours the opinion that the coins refer to Aretas II. and not to Aretas III., the contemporary of St. Paul. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq. xiii. 13. § 3., 15. § 1, 2.; Eckhel, Doctr. Num. Vet. iii. 330.) About the time when Pompey made himself master of Syria, B. c. 65, we again meet with an Aretas, king of Arabia, but whether he is the same as the conqueror of Antiochus XII., or his successor, is uncertain. If he was the same, we must suppose that he did not remain long in possession of Cœle-Syria, but was compelled to withdraw from it. Dion Cassius relates that Syria previous to becoming a Roman province suffered much from his hostility, and that he continued his hostile operations against that country even after he had been beaten by the Syrians with the assistance of the Romans. The events to which Dion Cassius thus briefly alludes are related at some length by Josephus. During the disputes between Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus in Judæa, Hyrcanus, on the advice of Antipater, the Idumæan, fled to Aretas, and persuaded him to invade Judæa, B. c. 65. Aretas came with an army of fifty thousand men, defeated Aristobulus, and then laid siege to Jerusalem, whither Aristobulus withdrew. But after some time Aristobulus purchased with four hundred talents the assistance of Scaurus, one of the legates of Cneius Pompeius, who was then in Armenia. Scaurus compelled Aretas to raise the siege, and returned to Damascus. Aristobulus, however, continued the war against Aretas and defeated his army at a place called Papyron. [ARISTOBULUS II.] According to Plutarch, Pompey himself marched against Aretas to besiege him in his capital Petra, after he had made himself master of Judæa, whereas, according to Dion Cassius, he made his campaign against the Arabian king and defeated him before he entered Syria and Palestine. The latter statement seems to be correct, as it agrees with the accounts of Appian and Josephus. But Dion Cassius appears to be mistaken in stating that Pompey completely conquered Aretas, for, according to Josephus, who must have had good information about these occurrences, the war against Aretas was not concluded when Pompey left Syria to return to Rome, and his legate Scaurus, who remained behind in Syria, marched against Petra. But as he was unable to reach that town, he ravaged the country, which at length induced Aretas to purchase a peace for three hundred talents. This success of Scaurus is commemorated by two extant coins, on one of which is the head of Pompey: Aretas is represented on his knees (Rasche, Lexic. Rei Numariæ). The coins commemorate the curule ædileship of Scaurus, B. c. 58, and therefore Aretas must have paid the three hundred talents before that year. The Arabs however appear to have still made their hostile incursions into Syria, and the successors of Scaurus were obliged to continue the war against the Arabs. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq. xiv. 1. § 4, &c., 5. § 1., Jewish War, i. 6. § 2.; Dion Cassius, xxxvii. 15.; Appian, De Bello Mithrid. 106., Syriaca, 50.; Plutarch, Pompeius, 39. 41.) The ARETAS III. was a contemporary of Augustus and Tiberius, and father-in-law of Herod Antipas of Judæa. Josephus states that the name Aretas was assumed afterwards, and that his real name was Æneas. name Aretas, however, is the one by which the kings of Arabia are best known. He was the successor of Obodas, and is first mentioned in the reign of Augustus in connexion with Ælius Gallus, who was kindly received by him on his expedition against some tribes of Arabia in B. C. 24. Herod Antipas lived for a |