as in the case of the Psalms of Korah, perhaps, surpass them in poetic value. However, it is of the highest importance, and the remark has been justly made, that a certain hardness, compressedness, and boldness, a struggle between the thought and language, should be regarded as a mark of antiquity. Later poets move after the customary forms, while the former must first break the path. The book of Proverbs has more unity of character and language; it contains nothing which renders it necessary to assume that it was composed at a later date. Next to this comes the book of Job, though, in another respect, it inclines to the later character."

The age and genuineness of the Prophets are the most certain. It is only difficult to determine their relative age. The four contemporaries, Amos, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah, make the beginning. Of these, Hosea is particularly distinguished by his antique hardness, and inconcinnity of expression. Next come Joel, Nahum, and Habakkuk, equally distinguished by high poetic flight, lively coloring, and a certain classic concinnity, in which Joel surpasses all. Obadiah, Zephaniah, and Jeremiah, were nearly contemporary witnesses of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldees, and the captivity. The last of these sang his elegies on the ruins of Jerusalem. Finally, Ezekiel uttered his oracles during the exile, on the banks of the Chaboras. But this most original of the poets, whose luxuriant fancy swells out into new, gigantic, and grotesque figures, possesses too little taste and concinnity to merit the name of a classic writer."

a Ps. x. and lxviii. must therefore be old. See Dathe's Psalm. p. 147. De Wette, Com. ab. d. Ps. p. 23, sqq. The same must be said of some of the older prophets.

Here the later and spurious passages must be rejected; e. g. Isa. xl.-lxvi. This forms a whole, composed, indeed, at the end of the exile,—and has no small excellences of language, though it is prolix, and contains repetitions. By this operation more than half of Isaiah must, perhaps, be rejected; and it may be asked how the collection came to be called by his name. Perhaps in consequence of the well-known rule, a potiori, — which so often guided the Hebrews. But who does not know with how little critical judgment the titles of works and collections are selected by the Orientals?

Several parallels, especially of an historical character, in Joel and Amos, show the two prophets lived about the same time. See Rosenmüller, in V. T. pt. vii. vol. i. p. 433, who follows Vitringa. Nahum and Habakkuk are to be placed somewhat later. The first mentions the invasion of the Assyrians, the last, of the Chaldees.

The Bible itself sometimes give notice that the language had changed; e. g. 1 Sam. ix. 9, No‡, (prophet,) anciently called, (see-er.) Samuel is called by this name, 2 Sam. ix. 9, 1 Ch. ix. 22, 26, 28, xxix. 29; and also a later prophet,

SECOND PERIOD.

$7.

LATER AND CHALDAIZING LANGUAGE.

1. With the exile begins a new epoch for language and literature, which is particularly distinguished by an approach to the cognate east-Aramæan dialect, to which the Jews in the land of exile became accustomed. At first, this dialect served only as the language of the people, in connection with the proper Hebrew language. But after the return, it gradually displaced the old dialect from the mouth of the people; so that, at the end of the Maccabaic period, the latter only maintained itself as the written language, on which, however, the influence of the cognate dialects was perfectly unavoidable. But this influence is not equally great upon all the literary productions of this epoch; and several pieces which their historical connections refer to a late period, are nothing inferior to the works of a previous age, in regard to purity of style."

b

2. In general, this age is inferior to the former in respect to historical and poetical composition, as well as to purity of language. The modern prophets, Haggai, Malachi, and several late psalmists, write in the most weak and watery style. Poor in invention, they pile up old phrases. The books of Daniel, Esther, and Jonah, contain legends suited to a perverted Jewish taste. Finally, the book of Chronicles is an uncritical compilation of more ancient historical works. It was composed by priests of a late age, and is conceived in their spirit. However, this decision is not to be pronounced too generally, for even the Maccabaic period shows that the old spirit

Chanani, 2 Ch. xvi. 7, 10. In Exod. iii. 14, the name of God is changed from to. See J. C. Bonnet, Biblioth. Hag. Cl. iv. p. 205, who shows the true sense of the passage. Compare De Wette, Beiträge, vol. ii. p. 177, sqq. Vater, Com. in Pent. vol. iii. p. 631. The proper names also contain vestiges of the older language.

a E. g. the Pseudo-Isaiah, (ch. xl.-lxvi.,) the Psalms of the Sons of Korah, which, for the most part, belong to the times of the exile or after it, (Ps. xliv. lxxxiv. lxxxv.,) most of the Psalms "of degrees," (cxx. sqq.,) belong to the same period; as, also, Ps. lxxiv. lxxix., and some others, in which, with Paulus, Rosenmüller, and De Wette, we discover marks of the Maccabaic age. Purity of language is not a certain proof of antiquity, though the reverse is true, that Chaldaizing language proves a later age. See De Wette, 1. c. p. 16-26.

E. g. Ps. lxix. (compare xxii.) xxv. xxxv. lxxxviii. So the hymns in Chronicles, and that in Jonah, chap. ii.

had not entirely departed from the severely-oppressed nation. On the contrary, in particular instances, it arose with fresher life, and bloomed with new beauty. But why could not a religious enthusiasm like this inspire them for something better than weapons and war?" In regard to taste, thought, and manner, a high poetic value belongs not only to most of these passages, but also to those books where the language is very modern and Chaldaic, which, however, does not diminish their poetic value. To these belong the beautiful 139th psalm; the book of Ecclesiastes; the idyls of the Canticles; and some sublime visions of Daniel, (for example, chap. vii.) This fact has been too much neglected, and an altogether improper use has been made of it in the inquiries upon the book of Job.

3. Those books in which this later language, with the Chaldaic tinge, appears the most distinctly, form a cyclus of writings which mutually illustrate each other. The Chaldee of the Targums, and the contemporary portions of the Apocrypha, translated from the Aramæan originals, offer assistance in explaining these books which is not yet sufficiently made use of. They are Esther, Ecclesiastes, Chronicles, Daniel, Jonah, and some of the Psalms. The language is somewhat more pure in Ezra, Nehemiah, Zachariah, Malachi, and the Song of Solomon, which Job resembles. But it is well known the books of Daniel and Ezra contain passages written entirely in Chaldee.

4. Among the marks of this later style, the proper Chaldaisms may be distinguished from the other peculiarities of the modern Hebraism. The former are more numerous, and of two kinds. Either the Aramaan word has been adopted in its own form and sense, and this is oftenest the case, -or the Aramæan usage, the common turning and signification of words, have been imitated, while the Hebrew form was preserved."

The modern Hebraisms which cannot be referred to the Aramæan are particularly obvious where a different expression was common, in the older writings, for the same idea. Now, the language of the Tal

a See Bengel, Supplem. ad Int. Psalm; 1806. He appeals very pertinently to Ecclesiasticus.

E. g. in old Hebrew, which, (Syriac ? )

means only what? Chaldaizing,, that is repeated for quidam, (in imitation of the

Syriac, ? ;) the pleonastic, at the place where, for where; in the Syriac, 2. So, (Eccl. viii. 17,) in the Aramæan,777, &c.

?

muds and the rabbins belongs, for the most part, to this later usage, which was common with them, and which may be advantageously explained from them.

5. Since no attempt has hitherto been made to collect the chief characteristics of this later style," a selection of the most important is placed below.

To save room, the references and Aramæan parallels are omitted, but may easily be found by referring to the Lexicon. The idioms which have their parallels in the Chaldee are marked *. LATER WORDS.-7, byssus, elsewhere ; *, a castle; ;*,

*, a pit;, a treasure;, time;, noble, illustrious; , race, stock, with the verb in, aлoɣgagéσda;, (only in Hiphel,) to extend; *, formerly, long ago; *, cor, a measure,

chamber in the temple; *, a province;, interpretation;

, נִשְׁכָה and לִשְׁכָה ;to be just, successful ,* כָּשֵׁר (; חֹמֶר compare)

, סוף ; to be chief , נְצַח ;the shon-bread, לְחֶם הַפָּנִים for לֶחֶם הַמַּעֲרֶכֶת

connection ,

עזרה

for y, the end; 30, 3, and no, a fool, folly; 73322 *, labor, work; *, for, fore court;,, in connection with; *, to think upon; *, necessity; ap*=p3, to take, receive; *, to examine, (in Piel, to expect, hope ;) p, p, 11*, to become great; b, intelligence, understanding, and 3¬

,* שִׁלְטוֹן and, שַׁלִיט with שָׁלַט ; to extol, praise, שְׁבַּח ; to be intelligent

to rule; in, a series; * to be or become straight; * with

and, to be strong, powerful; almost all the names of the months, e. g. 1977*, 1309*, bay*, nay

The later language often prefers certain peculiar forms instead of the kindred forms used in the earlier period. It is fond of substantives ending in,, and ; e. g. 17, a building; ??, * ♫

izziņ,

T: 9

; success, כִּשְׁרוֹן ; excellence ,* יִתְרוֹן ; understanding , חֶשְׁבוֹן ; business , רְעוּת, עַשְׁתוּת, סִכְלוּת, מַלְכוּת ; dominion ,* שִׁלְטוֹן ; striving ,* רַעְיוֹן

&c. The following forms occur:, book; y, time; ?, al

Other single examples . תַּקִיף, עַתִּיק, שליט ready ; adjectives like

, דָּבָר = דִּבְרָה ;a garden ,3 = בְּנָה ; purple, אַרְגָּמָן for ,* אַרְבְּרָן,are

177,
cause; ni, advantage, and, as an adverb, more;

purple;=, a =
*, a word,

a Löscher (1. c. p. 63) has made a small beginning.

;ten thousand, רְבָבָה for, רִבּוֹא ; knowledge, דַּעַת for ,* מַדֶע ;command to be. The modern language, הָיָה for ,* הָוָה, דַמֶשֶׂק for ,* דַּרְמֶשֶׁק -יְהוֹשְׁעַ for the old form יֵשׁוּעַ substitutes the proper name

, אֲרָצוֹת ;to command, * אָמַר

TT

LATER SIGNIFICATIONS AND USAGES. the (other or heathen) lands; Y*, business; i*, fortunate, joyful;, what? without an interrogation, for the same, with the relative following, as a circuitous way of expressing a negation*;, a learned man; yp, to stand up, to come forward, with, to stand by, (in Hiphel, and ;) *, to begin to speak;

and צֶדֶק ; to let go free ,* פָּטַר ;to commission, command ,* פָּקַד עַל

the daily offering. Some of, עוֹלַת תָּמִיד = חָמִיד ; give to God

, salvation, deliverance; *=y, ruler; by, to give up, to

them are connected with later religious ideas; e. g., prince of angels, archangel;, bad angel;, the holy, i. e. the angels, also for the Jews;, the wicked; and

godly sufferers. The last term is applied to the Jews, the other to the heathen that oppressed them.

LATER COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES.-, God of heaven,

T:

to take a wife, instead of, נָשָׂא אִשָּׁה ; א' צְבָאוֹת for the more ancient he does , עָשָׂה כִּרְצוֹנוֹ ; to have power, to be strong, עָצַר כֹּחַ ; לָקַח א"

what seems good to him, as a description of unlimited power;

, מְקוֹם אֲשֶׁר יֵשׁ אֲשֶׁר to restore the captive, instead of , שׁוּב שְׁבוּת פ"

to restore to his prosperity. See above, No. 2.

Later OrthograPHY.—The scriptio plena is used where it is contrary to analogy; e. g. 7777, 7, for in, threshing-sledges; 17, for ;, grace, in the construct; i*, *, ain*, for

,,; the interchange of x for at the end*, e. g. the feminine termination, and the alternation of the verbs and *; the quiescent, e. g. in D in, for bin, 31%, &c.

PECULIARITIES OF FLEXION AND SYNTAX.-The rejection or assumption of at the beginning of words; e. g. 7, for , where the is assimilated; hence,, for (Eccl. iv. 14,) for "; on the contrary,, for

;, for

;,

; מֵאַלף for, מַלֵּף; עַד הֵנָּה for, עֶדְנָה Combinations like .* זרוע for יְהוֹשִׁיעַ and extensions like

for ; the use of as a relative, of