by itrasion EA DIN of the ambem brales being more powerful and more strive than his opponent of the south would orensime Lim in lunle, and the result would be an corpation of southern territory and an enslavement of its puny and indolent inhal hants. Such has been the altual history of both Asia and Europe. India has been repeatedly occupied by northern hordes, and the few tribes of the or find inhabitants are reckoned to number now not more than one-tenth of the whole population, if in leed these be the original inhabit ants. The extensive, though enervated, dominion of Rome, exter-ling from Britain to Persia, was likewise overrun by barbaric Lordes till the whole of the countries, formerly under the Imperial sway, passed into the dominion of peoples who had issued from the impenetrable and unknown regions of the north. The consequences of these repeated invasions of a more warlike northern people on the countries occupied by the feeble inhabitants of the south, was to keep the latter constantly in a condition of slavery. Thus the ruling people, and more particularly the small section of them which constituted the ruling family, or head, kept under despotic subjection extensive countries. Multitudes were governed according to the caprices of an individual. No opportunity remained for enterprise, for the fruits of that enterprise would have been at the mercy of one who had become enamoured of those luxuriant and expensive pleasures which a warm climate and an irresponsible situation can so abundantly confer. The whole necessarily became the subservient slaves of one absolute personal will, that ruled not altogether for the efficient government and defence of the country, but also for selfish personal gratification-a vice most natural to those who transfer their residence from the comparatively bleak and sterile north to the sunny plains of the south, where more particularly the means of unlimited indulgence are easily and inexpensively obtained. Such then was the lot of the great mass of mankind under the ancient civilizations. There were, however, exceptions to this condition; and in the more recent times the exceptions increased in number, so that, at any rate in Europe, they ultimately became under the Roman Empire the rule. What were the circumstances and characteristics of these exceptions? The peoples who were situated on the sea-coast were not in every case altogether dependent upon the fruits of the neighbouring country. They might surround their habitations with walls on the land side, and possess natural or artificial havens on the sea side. They could in this way isolate themselves from the general community of their own country, and they could preserve communication by sea with the inhabitants, and supply themselves with the produce, of other countries. Thence arose another and a completely distinct source of power from that of Conquest, namely, the power of Commerce. Thus the Mediterranean-that sea in the middle of the earth, as its name indicates-became surrounded by countries engaged in commerce with each other, those so occupied being at first situated within large enwalled sea-port towns. Hence arose Tyre and Sidon, the great cities of Phoenicia, Athens of Greece, Rome of Italy, Smyrna of Asia, Syracuse of Sicily, Carthage of Africa, and Marseilles of Gaul. In course of centuries these and the other innumerable towns situated on that sea and on the Euxine became powerful in their influence over the adjoining territories, and thus gradually but completely transformed the character and condition of the adjoining peoples and governments. Thus the character of Rome became stamped on Italy, which, from the immense advantages presented to its rural inhabitants, from their comparative proximity to sea-ports trading with other countries, and their consequent ability to exchange the produce of their fields for the riches of foreign countries, became ultimately cultivated in every part. Indeed, it is true that wars had been waged between the representatives of the principles of Conquest and Commerce in Italy in the time of the Etruscans, hundreds of years before Rome itself had emerged from obscurity, and probably the result was that the country was somewhat settled before Rome rose into importance. The area of Etruria was occupied by twelve sovereign cities, which often joined together to promote their common interests and to resist the incursions of those who invaded the peninsula from the north. The strength of ancient united Italy was great and elastic. From Rome, the centre of that first greatest commercial civilization, there sprang an indomitable spirit of law and government, which ultimately impressed itself over the length and breadth of the ancient world, linking the populations together by the firmness and impartiality of its rule, and the material benefits it conferred. It was, however, impossible that such a rapidly agglomerated empire could have maintained itself for long. The prosperity created was for the most part a superinduced one. The colonised countries had not had time to grow naturally to a condition of strength their life was in some degree forced and artificial, and they were for the most part altogether differently situated from those whence they had derived their civilization. They had comparatively few physical facilities for commerce, and that which could thrive must have been too insignificant to entirely restrain the people by the promise of rewards. And besides, the people as a whole : were still in shackles, and therefore comparatively heedless of the welfare of the State. On the other hand, the wealthy and powerful became careless, then immoral, then weak. The barbarians at last broke the lines of mercenaries placed to oppose their progress, and wave succeeded wave till, first the colonies, and ultimately the centre of the empire, were submerged by their constantly increasing power. The principle of Conquest had triumphed over that of Commerce, but not before the virtues of the latter-weak as it had always been from the presence of slavery-had become clouded. There remained, however, in the general collapse, a few old Roman towns which preserved a feeble flicker of their primal life. To these in course of the gradual settlement of the new state of things were added other towns situated in positions on the coast or on navigable rivers. merce. These grew very slowly into centres of comWhen the cities were still embryonic, they could scarcely be distinguished from the country except by the fact that their inhabitants drew together for the advantage of asylum and defence. The defence was imperfect, for even the lord of the domain wherein the town was situated would gratify his avarice by attempting its pillage. Thus, in the words of Guizot, 'The merchants, after having made their journeys, were not permitted to enter their towns in peace; the roads and approaches were incessantly beset by the lord and his followers. The time at which industry was recommencing was exactly that in which security was most wanting. Nothing can irritate a man more than being interfered with in his work and despoiled of the fruits which he had promised himself from it. . . . There is in the progressive movement towards fortune of a man or a population, a principle of resistance against injustice and violence far more energetic. Thus the necessity for a than in any other situation.'1 more perfect defence arose. and manned by the men who had acquired and were acquiring wealth. The acquisition of this wealth was the cause of settled order within the towns that were thus defended against external attack. These then gained a strength superior in many cases to that of the lords. But the struggle for freedom was a long one, and in many cases the lives as well as the goods of the citizens of the towns were sacrificed. Even when peace had been apparently attained, and the burgh charter had been sworn to by either party, it was frequently violated, and the war renewed with increased bitterness and waste. But ultimately the enfranchisement of the burghs was completely established. The perpetual loss and danger that had been submitted to and risked in the course of these struggles can never be known; history is not eloquent regarding these first popular struggles for liberty. The principle of commerce, however, eventually triumphed, and merchant guilds were firmly established in many towns. The profit upon the exchange of commodities produced in different countries was the greatest and easiest inducement to the establishment of these guilds, and to their mutual defence. Afterwards the craft guilds arose and secured a footing alongside and in co-operation with the merchant guilds, thereby binding the two classes of merchants and traders together intimately for common interests. In the twelfth century the inhabitants of the towns 'consisted almost entirely of merchants, traders carrying on a petty commerce, and of small proprietors either of land or houses, who had taken up their residence in the town. Three centuries after, the bourgeoisie comprehended besides advocates, physicians, learned men of all sorts, and all the local magistrates.' 2 The state of the 1 History of Civilization, by F. Guizot. 2 Ibid. |