this department of instruction. In Marburg the scholars of the upper classes are sometimes taken by Director Münscher to the Elizabeth Church, a gem of Gothic architecture; and in Stuttgart last summer Professor Wintterlin undertook an excursion to Maulbronn with the members of the second senior class," in order to give them at least the fundamental ideas of the Roman and German architecture, and create a desire for independent study in this direction."

2. The apparatus of instruction being thus found to be deficient, while yet the need of it is acknowledged, the question follows: What shall next be done? And the answer is obvious. Just this educational apparatus, that is, the foundation of art collections, both classic and Christian, must be procured for the gymnasia. The proper selection is indicated by the object, and can involve no difficulty.1 The limits to be observed are moreover obvious. But for the modest claims which the cause makes, both money and room are doubtless everywhere to be had. As to the latter point, whenever a new building is erected, it is easy to provide a special room; in other cases, it will always be possible to set up a few gypsum casts, which even tend to ornament any hall; at least every school has a library room, where they might find a place. Furthermore, the matter of expense can hardly be anywhere a hinderance. The well-endowed educational institutions have such considerable funds for the means of education, both for the library, and in particular for the purposes of natural science, that a proportionate endowment for the purposes of the study of art is only a demand of justice. But even when the receipts are less, the arrangement need not fail to be made through lack of funds, since with the present means of multiplying wealth much can be attained by little, and the beginning is that on which everything depends. The most favorable circumstance for appa

1 A sketch of a plan for the arrangement of a collection of works of Christian art for schools has been given by me in the essay, Das christliche Museum der Univ. zu Berlin und die Errichtung christlicher Museen für die Schule und die Gemeinde. Evangelischer Kalender for 1857, p. 69 seq.

T

ratus of this kind is, that, when extraordinary expenditures are needed for any cause, the good will and active interest of the public are most easily enlisted in it.

It may be more difficult in general to find for this branch of instruction the requisite ability to teach-teachers who are at home in the various departments; and I have heard from various sides the difficulty urged, that many gymnasia, in one respect the most of them, are in this feature deficient. And truly what has long been neglected cannot be made up in a moment. Still, where the former demand is met, this requirement will also be satisfied to a reasonable extent, if the claim is fulfilled, that the teachers should not stop with the education obtained at the university. This would imply, in relation to the question before us, that among them both the representatives of classical philology and the teachers of religion, if they have before made themselves familiar exclusively with the literature, should educate themselves further in the monumental branch, of their science. regard, however, to the filling of vacant places, there are doubtless in the department of philology young men everywhere to be obtained, who are also trained in archaeology. Very favorable for this purpose is the Prussian stipend, established in 1860, which furnishes annually two able young philologists with means to complete their archaeological studies in Rome. A deficiency is more likely to be found in the theological department, owing in part to the faculties, which in monumental theology have been to some extent guilty of dereliction to duty. But if only the gymnasia demand from the universities teachers thus trained, they will soon be sent. For the inward impulse of science, when united with such an outward demand, works in all directions irresistibly.

With

And this working will also be traceable in the youth. In their instruction, importance should be indeed attached to the matter which they are required to learn in this department, though with the difference that, while at the university it is presented in its proper connection, it comes up in the schools more incidentally and by way of applica

tion. But the chief advantage of this study I would seek in its moral effect, that there may be awakened in the youth a reverence for the world of mind which is stamped on the monuments of ancient and modern times, and a desire to obtain possession of this wealth; that this desire may spring up as a germ, to find in more mature years full satisfaction.

ARTICLE VI.

CAUSE AND EFFECT.

BY REV. JOHN BASCOM, PROFESSOR IN WILLIAMS COLLEge.

It is not uncommon in philosophy to build structures on foundations whose existence is denied. His action, who, mounted on a pyramid of boxes, requested his companion to pluck away the first and pass it up, that he might by means of it climb higher, though too coarse a joke for practical life, is often realized with the more subtile, illusory supports of metaphysics. The juggler, at the end of a surprising performance, shows his hands still tied as satisfactory proof that he has had no part in it; yet remove him bodily and his tricks are sure to go with him. Many a fine-spun philosophical theory is indebted for its very existence to faculties whose function and office it is its chief business to disprove. Bind the mental powers beyond escape that have played an unobserved part in the construction of these hypotheses, and they would lose all coherence and firmness, and pass from sight like vapor.

The illustration of this class of theories which we have more particularly in mind, is that which denies the validity of the notion of cause and effect; which regards it as merely the unverified force assumed in explanation of the observed fact of stated antecedents. Sequence is all that is seen, all that is known, and any notion of a necessary link between

the consequent and the antecedent, a dependence on the one upon the other, is a mere notion arising in the mind as something beyond what it knows-a fictitious solution which it gives to phenomena in themselves naked and void of the idea. This denial is most essential and central to idealism, and leads to those other denials which so completely divorce this philosophy from common experience, sympathy, and even comprehension. This school of metaphysicians emasculate knowledge at once by this rejection of the primary nexus of things. They may go on with Mill to construct a logic of the inductive sciences; yet these sciences will owe their entire interest and growth to the discarded idea of cause and effect, to a belief in forces that may be known, and whose action may be duly experienced. They may proceed with Herbert Spencer to give first principles, to treat psychology and biology, and still their language will be dripping full of the rejected notion of efficient forces. It is superfluous to give passages from writers of this class implying this idea of force, when their entire works, with the exception of a few eccentric and guarded definitions, are filled with them; when it is impossible for them to use current or to invent and steadily employ a new speech excluding the speech notion of causation.

We may define matter as "the permanent possibility of certain phenomena," but we shall never handle it, use it, scientifically investigate and discuss it, without regarding it as in the exercise of forces which produce these phenomena, without distinguishing between effects and their causes, between sensations and that which occasions them. Take from thought, these, its habitual forms of discrimination, and how instantly would all its subject-matter fall together, collapse into chaos, the waters above and below the firmament rushing again to each other's embrace, surging confusediy and wildly, with no lines or currents of forces, and, hence, with no distinctions by which the mind could grasp and understand the scene before it! We may define mind as "a series of phenomena in consciousness," but the moment we

discuss these phenomena, and combine them into a science, we shall do so by virtue of a permanent interior nexus between them all; we shall think of them as faculties and capacities, the power of something to act and to suffer action. Responsibility, merit, guilt, growth, retrogression, attention, recollection, will all instantly and necessarily cause to appear in our philosophy the idea of an agent whose conditions and acts these are. Forbid us this, and our philosophy flutters a little in a few faint definitions, and then either falls, or surreptitiously slips its wings from their confinement, and soars, forgetful with what it soars. So, too, we may in the frenzy of speculation arrive with Spencer at this definition of life: "A continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations," thus looking at what life does, not at what life is. But this definition will not prevent our speaking a little later of "the connection of cause and effect," our "ascribing results to a play of forces," our adding "to assert otherwise is to assert that there can be an effect without a cause, which is to deny the persistence of force." Science is indeed impossible without the practical recognition of the notion of cause and effect, involving, as it does, that of force. Put in its place that of a fixed sequence, and the calculations of mechanics would rest on a pure fiction; equally would those of natural philosophy be resolved into mere phantoms, shadows of the mind. Astronomy, hydraulics, optics, accoustics, would present no forces, and hence no opportunity for marking the laws of their action. The permanence and transmutations of the power expressed in heat, light, electricity, chemical, mechanical action, would become a delusion. All that would remain to science would be the statics of the world, to mark position in space and time, and external resemblances, while dynamics, movements, events, and dependences, as implying occult and denied causes, would be removed beyond its pale. There would be no opportunity to distinguish between conditions and causes, between accidental accompaniments of force and its true exponents. The only query would be the constancy of connections, and this,