aid, and showed so much real sympathy | those of their own welfare. It is their for the sufferers, that they returned to object to gain as much power as possible, Africa grateful and happy. The Stran- while it is that of the people to let them gers' Home has done incalculable good possess only so much as shall enable them in preserving a helpless class of often de- to carry on a good government. They serving and industrious men from terrible wish the masses to say nothing about their dangers and temptations; and although its conduct, while it is essential to the security main object is not gratuitous charity, it of the latter that they enjoy the right of would be matter for regret if, for want of a free speech. Such being the case, absolittle help, it were disabled from continu- lute governments may work very well ing to succor the destitute as well as those when the inhabitants of a country are too who can pay their way. ignorant to realize their situation; but as soon as they begin to know of the privi leges which should be conferred on them, and understand that the officials may be enriching themselves at their expense while their own interests are endangered, they will in all probability not only disobey the rulers but will begin to regard them as their enemies. Under such cir cumstances as these, a government should discontinue the policy of serving its own ends, and should adopt the safer and more healthful one of promoting the universal welfare and prosperity.

From The Choya Shinbun.*

A JAPANESE VIEW OF CO-OPERATION AND

CONFIDENCE.

LAWS are made for the purpose of protecting the lives and interests of the people, and if they had not this efficacy there would be no necessity for them at all. Men strive to be virtuous in conduct and to extend their knowledge because their interests are thereby advanced. It is maintained in theories of economy that a country gains by being divided up among small landed proprietors, rather than being owned entirely by large ones. This is because a farmer who possesses extensive estates would not work upon his fields himself, but would hire men to do so; and as these would profit nothing by enriching the soil, it would be allowed gradually to grow worse and worse. But the small farmer would cultivate his own fields, and having only his own interests to consider, he would do all in his power to get as large harvests as possible, and to render his property constantly more productive. Another example is supplied by the mercantile class. One merchant hires a manager with a fixed salary, while another gives his manager a certain percentage of the gains. In most cases it will be seen that the former employé will not work so hard for the interests of his patron as the latter, because he is not directly concerned in the business. We find that the same principle applies to nations at large. Monarchies and aristocratic governments, at times, give no heed to the interests of the community, because kings and nobles are apt to reject all considerations but

A Japanese newspaper.

Looking at the present condition of our nation, we see that fu and ken assemblies have lately been established, but as they are mere primitive institutions, they have not the power of upholding the popular cause before the central government. The great requirement of the present moment is that publicity shall be given to the acts of the chief authorities—and in regard to this requirement our administration shows a great indifference. If the rulers keep their doings secret from the public, the latter will commence to doubt their motives, and the space between the gov ernment and the people will gradually widen. The wealth and the strength of our empire cannot prosper under these conditions. As in the case of the merchant who shares with his banto a percentage of his gains, there should be mutual labor for the well-being of the State by the leaders of the administration and society at large. Let the higher officials make known to the world all their measures, both good and bad. The worst consequences sometimes proceed from injudicious concealments. Even insurrections and civil wars may not infrequently have their origin in the refusal of a government to disclose its deeds and the doubts and suspicions that are generated by such re

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From The Church Quarterly Review.

THE TALMUD.*

|sixty-three treatises of the Mishna, including the treatise on the fathers. The translation of it generally agrees with Mr. Taylor's version, but the discrepancies are sufficiently marked to show that the two scholars worked on independent principles. In the other treatises, the extreme sententiousness of the Jewish rabbis frequently renders the meaning obscure, and there are numerous passages, unintelligible to a reader not acquainted with the literature and style of the Talmud, and with usages referred to in it, which need elucidation. It is, however, the most effectual effort ever made in England, to enable ordinary readers to form a correct conception of what the Mishna really is. It shows how wide is the difference between the sacred literature of the Jews, and the weak and quibbling writings of the rabbis

to our hitherto limited knowledge of Tal mudical literature, and will do much to stimulate a desire for further information.

THE study of the Talmud has, for various reasons, been long neglected by Christian scholars. Since the days of Lightfoot, scarcely an effort has been made to penetrate its recesses, and, until within a very recent period, no one has attempted to present to the public any portion of it in an English dress. The partial success which attended the labors of the scholar of the Commonwealth, did not afford much encouragement to others to follow his example, and since his day, little use has been made of Talmudical authorities to illustrate Scriptural doctrine, or the usages which prevailed among the Jews in New Testament times. Thirty-five years ago, seventeen treatises of the Mishna were published in English by two Jewish rabbis, but the work, on the face of it, was un-in later ages. It is a valuable contribution trustworthy, and it attracted little notice. The publication of the " Sayings of the Hebrew Fathers" by Mr. Taylor, being a translation of the ninth treatise of the fourth order of the Mishna, with an elaborate commentary, was the first real attempt in modern times to give the English public a small, but very important portion, of Talmudic literature. The follies and wisdom of the rabbis, their superstitions and strange interpretations of Scripture, their anticipations or adaptations of New Testament truth, and the remarkable agreement in some cases between their language and that of Scripture, show that the Talmud is not deserving of the contempt from which it has hitherto suffered, and lead to the belief that much more remains, equally deserving of the attention of scholars. This belief is strengthened by Dr. Barclay's work, which was published in the beginning of last year. It contains only seventeen of the

1. Selden, De Synedriis. (London, 1650.) 2. RELAND, Antiquitates Sacræ. (Trajecti Batav., 1717.)

3. VITRINGA, De Synagogâ Vetere. (Leucopetræ, 1726.)

4. LIGHTFOOT's Works. (London, 1823.)

5. Mishna Treatises. By DA SOLA and RAPHALL. (London, 1845.)

6. Sayings of the Hebrew Fathers. By CHARLES

TAYLOR. (Cambridge, 1877.)

7. The Talmud. By JOSEPH BARCLAY. (London, 1878.)

The Mishna embodies the Jewish traditions, legal, social, and ecclesiastical, which for several hundred years had been orally transmitted. Two centuries after the Christian era they were finally reduced into a written code by Rabbi Judah the Holy; the work, as compiled by him, being the text of the Talmud of Babylon. The commentaries upon it, called the Ghemara, were published later. These two sources afford a comparatively distinct view of the condition of the Jews shortly before the disruption of their nation, as regards the administration of justice, their religious system as distinguished from the temple services, the controversies and usages of contending sects, and the opinions of the educated classes. On many questions mistakes have been made, arising from superficial or imperfect knowledge, and successive writers have frequently taken for granted the statements of their predecessors, from inability or unwillingness to have recourse to the original authority. Mistakes can be rectified, wherever there are direct statements in the Talmud, but in some cases, it pre. Supposes a familiarity with institutions then actually existing, and a consequent obscurity arises, which is only partially

been received, the judges consulted together, and the president gave judgment in presence of both plaintiff and defendant. Each member of the court was strictly prohibited from divulging for which party he had given his voice, because it was said, "Thou shalt not go up and down as a tale-bearer among my people " (Lev. xix. 16), and “the tale-bearer revealeth secrets" (Prov. xi. 13). Execution of sentence was stayed for thirty days, during which the defeated party might bring further evidence with the view of reversing the judg. ment; and the judges were allowed to reverse their decision. If necessary, the court might sit on into the night, but it might not separate till a decision had been arrived at.

cleared away by the light of later rabbinic | striking off the heifer's neck (Deut. xxi. 4), writings. in the custom of loosing the shoe (Deut. The fourth treatise of the fourth order xxv. 9), and in certain cases of immorality. of the Mishna on the Sanhedrim, casts a | Questions about the produce of the fourth flood of light upon the judicial system in year (Lev. xix. 24), about the valuation of general, and upon the details of its admin- the second tithes (Deut. xiv. 22 and xxvi. istration, in respect to jurisdiction, evi- | 14), of holy (Lev. xxvii. 2) and movable dence, crimes and punishments. The things, and the valuation of a slave, in antiquity of the traditions embodied in it, which cases it was necessary that one appears from the absence of any reference judge should be a priest, about the inserto the Roman interference with the Great tion of the intercalary year and month,* Sanhedrim's infliction of capital punish- and the power of inflicting stripes, were ment, for the regulation of which there are within their control. In pecuniary causes, special directions, as well as a catalogue after the court had been cleared, the witof the crimes for which it was the penalty. nesses were called in and examined sepaTribunals for the administration of jus-rately, after being duly cautioned to speak tice were of three sorts. The first was a the truth. When all the evidence had court consisting of three judges, who exercised jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases of minor importance, and in other matters. They seem in some circum stances, and for particular purposes, to have been a standing committee of the greater Sanhedrims, but in others they were chosen from the larger body, to adjudicate in minor causes by the litigants themselves. One was selected by each, and the judges thus chosen nominated a third. Either plaintiff or defendant might object to the person selected by the other, on the ground of relationship, because no relative of any of the persons concerned could be allowed to act as a judge, or to give evidence, or on the ground of the want of character. The qualifications for membership of a Sanhedrim were experience and a reputation for justice, but these were supposed to include mercy, religion, hatred of bribery, and love of truth and of mankind. Gamblers, usurers, betting men,dred and twenty persons of sufficient imand those who carried on trades in the Sabbatical year, whether voluntarily or under foreign compulsion, were inadmissible either as judges or witnesses, but any other Jew, whether priest, Levite, or private person, was not debarred from the hope of obtaining a seat on the tribunal of justice. The court of three judges exercised jurisdiction in civil causes, in cases of robbery and assault, forcible restraint, enticement and slander, in the appointment of elders, who seem to have been the judges selected to fill vacancies in the Sanhedrims, and among officers of the synagogues, and

The Sanhedrim of the second class consisted of twenty-three judges. It could only be established in a city where there were, according to one authority, one hun

portance to discharge official duties, but according to another, two hundred and thirty, to represent twenty-three overseers of tens. In order to supply vacancies, there were three classes of probationers, each consisting of twenty-three persons specially selected from the citizens, and whenever a new judge was required, he that sat highest in order was transferred to the tribunal, his place being filled by

Authority to appoint the intercalary year and trusted only to a sub-committee of three of the Great month, as required by the Jewish calendar, was enSanhedrim, the president being always a member.