tollentem atque delentem." It is clear from the collocation in this passage, compared with that of the former, that religio means not only the scrupulous observance of religious obligations, but the lasting curse or remorse, which, as a punishment, waits on those who violate the sanctity of divine worship. This feeling may, as the former passage shows, be expiated, atoned, or removed by the performance of suitable rites, or the guilt may be so heinous that no reconciliation can take place between the offender and his conscience; and thus we find in the third passage to which I have adverted, (c) Philipp. I. 6, § 13: "an me censetis, P. C., decreturum fuisse, ut parentalia cum supplicationibus miscerentur, ut inexpiabiles religiones in rempublicam inducerentur ?"—that a state would be involved in an ayos, or pollution, which no кadappoi could wash away, if funereal sacrifices in honour of the departed were mixed up and confused with public thanksgivings to the immortal gods.

From all this it appears that the formation in -o [n] brings the mere abstract noun, from which it is derived, into a more concrete reference, so that the meaning is rather the result of the verb's action than the action itself. This is the signification also of Greek nouns in -wv, -wvos, many of which, as Xequor, denote some object or thing. The most important, and perhaps the least understood of these Greek nouns is air, which denotes not only an unlimited extension in time, which is one meaning of dei, but also present existence, or existence for the time being, as in o kρaтwv dei, "whoever happens to be in power" (Æsch. κρατῶν ἀεί, Prom. 973); thus aiev may signify not only an age or eternity, but also the present life, as opposed to the future, which is sometimes its meaning in the New Testament, and the existing generation of a family for the time being, as opposed to the series of yeveal, which make up the whole succession or continuance of a race (see the note on the Antig. 580, p. 179).

From religio we have the adjective religiōsus; and the occurrence of the same form in derivatives from nouns in -ia as ærumn-osas from ærumna, glori-osus from gloria, luxuriosus from luxuria, &c., tends to confirm the supposition that the noun in -io is an extension of the noun in -ia. We find adjectives in -osus from other crude forms, as dol-osus, libidin-osus, and we may conclude that in these cases also the intermediate form is the genitive in -ion. The forms in -tivus, mentioned above

(p. 404), show that the origin of the abstract nouns in -is, -sis, -tis, &c., may be traced back to the supine in -tum and the infinitive in -se (cf. New Crat. § 410, (3)).

That in all the nouns in -o[n] the i of the genitive -ion is absorbed, may be proved by an examination of the abstract nouns in -or, such as amor, favor, honor, &c. For no one will doubt that the Latin comparative ending -ior-ion-s is equivalent to the Greek -v=tov-s. Now the termination or is inexplicable except as an abbreviation of -ior. Therefore, pari ratione, -on must be an abbreviation of -ion. It is obvious that this view accords exactly with the meaning of such a noun as amor, which, as we shall see, results from a consonant verb amo=emo, and leads to the vowel-verb amo=amao. And thus amor= am-io-n-s means the act of choosing and selecting. Similarly, favor=fav-ion-s, which leads to the verb fav-eo, must have come from the root paF-, and, like fe-lix, faus-tus, it conveys the ideas of light and happiness. The noun hon-or cannot be referred to any primary verb in Latin, but it is not at all difficult to discover its Indo-Germanic affinities. It may be referred at once to the Sanscrit root van, "to love and serve," Greek Fov-, in óv-ívnu, &c., German win (winnan, Graff, I. 875). It thus denotes any kind of gain or profit, and the estimation of others, however expressed, is conveyed in the meaning of the abstract honor. Another form, indicating the concrete result, is onus=onu-t, and with all their differences of application hones-tus and onus-tus fall back to a common origin. This will not surprise any one who knows that the Hebrew 7 not only bears every signification of honour and dignity, but also denotes weight, with all its subordinate ideas of difficulty and trouble. We therefore see that as favor implies light and cheerfulness, as elements of happiness, honor expresses some more solid and weighty adjuncts of prosperity—ἀδύνατον γὰρ ἢ οὐ ῥᾴδιον τὰ καλὰ TράTTEL άxорŃуynтov övтa (Arist. Eth. Nic. I. 9, 15). Or if we prefer to connect it with the idea of estimation, we may remember that T-un signifies merely putting a price upon something, and that as-timo denotes a valuation by the standard of weight (above, p. 262). And thus the Romans would reckon personal distinction by weight (honor), by space filling the eye (amplus), and by the voice of fame occupying the ear (clarus, gloria, kλéos, &c.).

As the nouns in -tio[n] must be regarded as formed from the genitive of the abstract substantives in -tis-tevs, we may conclude from the similar signification of nouns in -ta[t]s and -tu[t]s, that they are formations from the ablatives of the same sort of nouns, and as pinguédo=pinguéd-in-s is an extension of a noun formed from the ablative of pinguis, we may infer that nouns like forti-tu-do are similarly formed from nouns like vir-tus-vir-tu-[t]s=vir-tud-s.

As nouns in -tis, &c., denote the action, so we find that, with the affix r, the same termination implies the agent. Thus, besides some abbreviated forms in which the t appears unaffected by any addition to distinguish it from the third pronominal element, as pa-ter, magis-ter, minis-ter, but which the Greek forms in -Tηp, as Tα-Tnp, show to have belonged to the same class with the abstract nouns in -tis = -tyas, we have a large class of words in -tor, fem. -tr-ix, denoting the agent. Thus, from præ-ire, "to go before," we have prætor=præ-i-tor, "one who goes before," i. e. "a general" or "leader," and from this again is formed præ-tura, denoting his agency, function, or office, and præ-torium, the place which is appropriated to him. The verbal nature of these adjuncts is shown by the fact that they are intimately connected with certain participial forms. Thus, from scribo, we have the supine or infinitive scrip-tum, "to write," and the participle scrip-turus, “about to write," as well as the nouns scrip-tor, "a writer," and scriptura, "a writing." And if we compare these with the participle (E. III.) scrip-tus, "written," we shall see the difference between the forms under discussion and those which involve merely the dental affix of the third pronominal element. For the latter imply only an object-a thing done-while those before us denote that the agent is still at work, and refer to the act of doing. Extenuated forms, like magis-těr, &c., are sometimes lengthened in their derivatives, as magis-tērium, &c., which revive the original type. But very often the r is immediately appended to the t in the neuter derivatives, so that we seem to have nothing more than the combination which appears in the third numeral, the comparative suffix, and the preposition trans (above, p. 328). But the analogy of the other endings and the meaning of the words plead for the connexion of the objective nouns in -trum with the words denoting agency, and thus bring

these nouns to an agreement with the longer extensions in -terium and -torium. Writers on Latin etymology, who have not fully studied the subject, or are deficient in the tact which verbal criticism presumes and requires, have been in the habit of explaining nouns in -trum as denoting always the instrument or means of doing; and one of these incompetent philologists has actually ventured on the absurdity of proposing (Proc. of Philol. Soc. II. p. 249) that as movere castra, ponere castra are common phrases, the castra must have been the axes which the soldiers carried with them for the purpose of felling trees to fence their encampment! To say nothing of the fact that cas-trum and cas-tellum both occur in the singular to denote an inclosed place of security, and that they may be explained with reference to the root of casa, "a house," cas-tus, "religiously pure and protected from external contact," kάo-Twp, "a mailed warrior," &c. (New Crat. § 267)1, it is not the fact that "the suffix -trum denotes always the instrument." If, which is nearly certain, it is only a weaker form of -terium or -torium, we should infer from this analogy that all these nouns denote a thing, whether place or object, considered with reference to a certain agency. We cannot always trace these secondary words to a noun signifying an agent, or to a verb from which such a noun might be derived: but it is clear in every case that this is the involved or implied meaning. The following are all the nouns in trum: an-trum, "a place for going up" (cf. BápaOpov with av-Tpov, and, for the root, Favá, ven-io, &c.); aratrum, "a thing for ploughing" (cf. ara-tor); cas-trum, "a place for enclosing" (ká(w); claus-trum, "a thing for shutting" (claud-o); fere-trum, "a thing for carrying" (fer-o); fulgetrum, "a thing for flashing" (i.q. fulgur); haus-trum, "a thing for drawing" (haur-io); mulc-trum, "a thing for milking (mulg-eo); ras-trum, "a thing for scraping" (rad-o); rostrum, "a thing for gnawing or cutting" (rod-o, cf. se-curis, a, &c., above, p. 75); ru-trum, “a thing for digging" (ruo); trans-trum, "a thing for crossing" (transeo); vera-trum, "a thing for purifying" (vero, "to make verus, i. e. purus”); veretrum, "a thing for causing shame" (aidoiov). We should erro

1 Farther analogies are suggested by the various uses of 720; cf, σαγή, and σάκος.

neously assign to this class astr-um, apiastr-um, cent-rum, flag-rum, &c., which are nouns in -um or -rum; but we occasionally find a genuine noun in -trum strengthened by -s, which is merely functional, as in the Greek forms KeλEU-σ-Tηs from κελεύσω, &ο. Such are capi-s-trum, "a thing for catching" (capio); lu-s-trum, "a thing for purifying" (lavo); mon-strum, "a thing for pointing at" (manus, unv-vw). To this class I would refer plau-s-trum, which some have attempted to derive from plaudo, as claus-trum comes from claudo. It seems better to explain the word with reference to Virgil: "tarda Eleusinæ matris volventia plaustra" (Georg. I. 163), which alludes to the slow and heavy waggon with its solid wheels, as it is still found in Lombardy. In this way we shall revert to the Greek πολεύω, πόλευ-σ-τρον; the analogy is supported by κέλευστρα ἢ κέλευστα ἅμαξα ημιονική (Hesych.); and the meaning by a passage, which, however, introduces some subordinate ideas; Soph. Αntig. 340 : ἰλλομένων ἀρότρων ἔτος εἰς ἔτος, ἱππείῳ γένει πολεύων. Whether the reference to the Eleusinian Ceres is or is not to be taken as an intimation that the plaustrum was of Greek origin, there can be no reason why, as in theatrum, sceptrum, sistrum, &c., a Greek name should not have been naturalized in this instance. In general, then, we may say that nouns in -trum indicate the thing with reference to the doer, and so denote the means or opportunity of doing, whether considered as a place or as an instrument.

The same is the signification of another set or rather double set of words in b-r, b-1, c-r, c-l; thus we have voluta-brum, “a place for rolling," vena-bulum, "a thing for hunting," sepul-crum, "a place for burying," vehi-culum, "a thing for carrying;" and by the side of these we have nouns of agency in 8, as volu-cris, "the flyer," &c. When we compare li-ber with eλev-Depós, ruber with épu-Opós, u-ber with ov-0ap, &c., we see that these words, according to the principle of divergent articulations (above, p. 6), must find their common origin in some forms combining 0, as the representative of the sibilants, and through them of the gutturals, with some labial, just as fera, php, and Op presume the Russian svehrs; now this combination is neither more nor less than the F- which represents the second pronominal element; but the nouns of agency in -ter give us this second element in its dental degeneration, followed by the same as a