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se-, which bears the same relation to "set," that "lay" does to "let," or the lao, leo, just examined, to the Scandinavian lata. Se-ro, O. N. sa or sóa, Goth. saian, O. H. G. saan, N. H. G. sâen, Engl. "sow," merely means to set in the ground. And the more original form si-no denotes leaving or setting down in general. Hence comes the idea of allowing or suffering to be done and finally, the causative meaning flows from that of leaving to be done by others: for the master or employer by leaving undone presumes the active employment of his substitute. A further modification is occasioned by a transference of person: and an action is predicated with reference to its object, as when a German says sich hören lassen, of a man who makes a speech, and lets others hear him, or when a Roman says quæ-so, “I let another person speak," meaning "I put a question to him." The general signification of so for si-no, in compounds like ar-cesso, "I let approach," i. e. "I send for," capesso, "I let myself take," i. e. "I undertake," &c., has been shown in the last chapter, where it has been adduced as an illustration of the composite tenses of the regular verb. It is rather remarkable that Bopp, who first suggested the true explanation of the composite tenses, and whom I have had to censure on more than one occasion for a theory of agglutinate forms carried beyond the reasonable limits of philological deduction, should still be among the number of those who are unable to see that the verbs in -880, -ssivi make the addition of si-no. He would compare these forms with the Sanscrit denominatives in sya, asya, and with certain imitations of the Greek derivative verbs such as atticisso, patrisso, &c. (Vergleich. Gramm. § 775, p. 1066). But in the latter case, the verb is always of the first conjugation in -a, and not only have we corresponding forms in -zo directly derived from the Greek (as patrizo for patrisso), but we know that ss generally stands for a Greek (above, p. 81). Besides, we cannot explain any of the verbs under consideration as desiderative forms, and if the obvious analysis of arcesso with its two orthographies, and quæso, with its included qua-ere from [in]-quam, were not sufficient to demonstrate that the -so, -sivi stand for sino, sivi, we could appeal to a case in which the verb sino, independently compounded with a preposition, has suffered a still

1 See New Crat. §§ 368, 379, above, Ch. XI. § 16.

more striking mutilation. There can hardly, I think, be a doubt that pô-no, (po-sui), stands for po-s-no; and as the perfect occurs under the form po-sivi, as in Plaut. Trinumm. I. 2, 108:

Mihi quod credideris, sumes ubi posiveris,

and as in this and other passages po-sino, "I lay down," is opposed to sumo-suemo, "I take up," it is clear that pono is merely a mutilated form of this verb sino compounded with the preposition po in po-ne, po-st, &c. But if we must recognise sino, sivi, in pono, ponis, po-sui, surely it is more clearly discernible in capesso, capessis, capes-sivi. Bopp's explanation is faulty on every account-the invariable i before the termination, the a- form of the verb, the later or Greek origin of the inflexion, the interchange of ss and z in existing specimens--all contribute to show that atticisso, -as, &c., do not belong to the same class with capesso, -is, expugnassere, &c.; and the signification of these latter verbs, their form, and the analogy of the old languages of Italy, all conspire to prove that the analysis which I have suggested is true. I must be permitted to add, that the value of the discovery is materially enhanced by the fact that it lies deep enough to have eluded the search of one of the first comparative philologers of the day, who has been unable to see the most important example of the accretion of verbforms, although he has abused in other respects a similar theory of agglutination. The other affix, used for strengthening the present, namely sc, generally gives an inchoative meaning, and is therefore, by the nature of the case, as entirely excluded from the perfect as the affix n. In most instances the perfect follows the model of a corresponding vowel-verb, whether real or possible; thus we have cre-sco, cre-vi, (to be distinguished from the accidentally coincident perfect of cer-no), concupi-sco, concupivi (cf. cupio), contice-sco, con-ticui (cf. taceo), exarde-sco, exar-si (cf. ardeo), no-sco, no-vi, sci-sco, sci-vi, &c. But although we have pa-sco, pa-vi, the origin of the appendage seems to be forgotten in the compounds, and compesco, compescui, &c., treat the whole crude form as though it were an independent root. The same is also the case with posco, poposci, where the original proc-sco is quite assimilated and forgotten. Otherwise we must have had in the reduplication a regular form of the simple root as in di-dic-i from disco-dic-sco. The semi-consonantal facio retains the i in its inchoative deponent

pro-fic-i-scor, "I cause myself to set forth," i. e. "I set out,” and the perfect profectus sum falls back on the form of the primitive participle. Some consonantal verbs strengthen the present with before they assume the inchoative affix; thus, from gemo, we have gem-i-sco, from tremo, trem-i-sco, from vivo, re-viv-i-sco (perf. revixi); from the root nac, na-n-c-iscor, nactus sum, from pa-n-go, pac-i-scor, pactus sum. The peculiar verb ob-liv-i-scor (from livor, liveo, livescor) meaning "I make a black mark for myself," "I obliterate," "I forget," has the perfect ob-li-tus sum. The forms which I have mentioned have either simply verbal roots, or corresponding verbs without this affix. But there are some which are apparently derived from substantives, as arbor-e-sco, ir-a-scor, puer-a-sco, tener-a-sco, &c. It must be clear, however, to any philologer, that we must in these cases assume an intermediate verb in -ya (=ao or eo). And while we find this supported in particular cases by substantives and adjectives like arbor-e-tum, i-r-ā-tus, &c., the fact, that there must have been many such vowel-verbs which are now extinct, is shown by the appearance of many adjectives in -atus, -itus, -utus, derived from nouns, but with the meaning of passive participles; such as barbā-tus, "bearded," auri-tus, 'long-eared,” cornu-tus, “horned," and many adverbs in -tim, with an active participial meaning, as catervā-tim, “troopingly,” furtim, "stealingly," &c. (above, p. 289). The passive form of these participial words implies that the vowel-verb, to which they are referred, is transitive, and in point of fact we find that cre-sco, "I am being made," stands in this relation to creo; see Virg. Georg. II. 336: "prima crescentis origine mundi." With singular inconsistency, Bopp, who cannot see any agglutinate form in the verbs in -so, -sivi, in the very next page assumes that these inchoatives include esco the obsolete future of the substantive verb, quite overlooking the fact that this form also remains to be accounted for, and that it cannot be explained otherwise than by concluding that esco-es-sco is the inchoative of es-um, Sanser. as-mê. For my own part, I have not the least doubt that sc in these Latin inchoatives, in the corresponding Greek verbs in -σkw, and in the iterative or inchoative tenses in -σkov, is a pronominal affix, springing from a repetition of the idea of proximity (New Crat. §§ 386, 7). Whether we say at once that s+c is a junction of two forms of the same element,

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like the common endings n+t, t+n, or identify it with the affix sy found in the Sanscrit future, and in the Greek and Latin desideratives, the result will be the same, for s-i-k come to an ultimate agreement as forms of the second pronominal element. As pronominal elements and their combinations appear also as verb-roots (as e. g. μev- in μévw, Oa- in Tilŋui, &c.), we shall have no difficulty in recognising the reduplication sc, with its inchoative and iterative meaning, in "a large class of words of which the general idea is that of the inequality of the limbs" (Kenrick, Herod. p. 24), or rather which denote progression by successive steps; such as σkéλos, sca-ndo, &c.

§ 9. B. Abbreviated forms.

Most of the abbreviated forms, or the verbs which are liable to syncope in certain of their inflexions, have received sufficient notice already. Possum for potis-sum or pot'sum is merely an assimilation. The perfect pot-ui may be referred to the same class as the other agglutinate perfects. The omission of d in certain inflexions of edo belongs to an analogy which is particularly observable in the Romance languages (above, pp. 256,7). The same may be said of vis for volis, malo for mage'volo, &c. There are, however, some etymological peculiarities about fero, which deserve a special examination, independently of the fact that it borrows its perfect tuli for tetuli, and its participle latus for tlatus or toltus, from the root of tollo, tolyo or tlao. No difficulty is suggested by an immediate comparison of fer-o with the Greek pép-w, Sanscr. bhrì, O. H. G. bar, Engl. "bear." But even without comparative philology it has been seen that fer-o must be connected with fer-io and fendo; thus Müller supports his reading, diffensus, in Festus, p. 272 (Suppl. Annot. p. 401, above, p. 207), by referring to the use of offendo, defendo, infensus, infestus, confestim, “quibus illud ostenditur synonymum fuisse feriendo et trudendo," and he adds, “quod posteriorum temporum usu diceretur: eam ob caussam dies differetur: majore cum vi, nec sine emphasi quadam sic pronunciabatur: EO DIES DIFFENSUS ESTO." But if diffendo=differo, of course fendo-fero. With regard to the adjectives infensus and infestus, which are so often confused, while offensus, from offendo, shows that the former is connected with in-fendo, a comparison of mani-festus, fest-ino, proves that in-festus is the old and genuine participle of in-fero. The

σαντε.

meaning of these apparently synonymous words is quite in accordance with this etymology; for while infensus denotes an unfriendly or angry disposition of the mind, and so corresponds to iratus, inimicus, on the other hand, infestus always signifies some outward opposition or attack, so that it answers to adversus, hostilis. Hence we find in the same passage of Livy (II. 6): "concitat calcaribus equum, atque in ipsum infestus consulem dirigit.... adeoque infensis animis concurrerunt, ut.... duabus hærentes hastis moribundi ex equis lapsi sint," where the "infensis animis" implies the animosity with which they were actuated; and the infestus the direct charge full tilt against the adversary; as in the parallel description of the fight between the two brothers in Sophocles (Antig. 145) they are described not only as στυγεροί, but also as καθ ̓ αὑτοῖν δικρατεῖς λόγχας στήσavтe. If we admit the affinity of ferio and fero, we shall see at once that the former, which is the secondary form, merely exhibits the adjunct ya, and the idea of striking is intimately connected with that of lifting, bearing, carrying; for a blow is nothing more than a weight or momentum brought to bear on some object: hence, the earliest weapon of offence is naturally termed a póraλov from péπw, just as the instrument of protection is called onλor from enw (New Crat. § 259). The connexion between fendo and fero is not so obvious. When we recollect the affinity between hir, hri, χείρ, ἁρ-πάζω, κάρπος, aip-éw, and yév-To, hinthan, can-is, "hand," "hound," xavdárw, pre-hendo (New Crat. §§ 162, 281), we see at once the possibility of a community of origin in fero and fendo. And as we cannot explain the & or th in either case as a mere adjunct to the root, we must not be led by the actual change of r into n, in some of these forms, to the conclusion that this change has taken place in hendo and fendo. As in the case of xa-v-dá-vw, it is more in accordance with scientific reasoning to suppose that the n is here an anusvâra or euphonic nasal; and the insertion of this sound would naturally introduce the medial d before r, as in av-d-pós, ven-d-re-di, &c. But, as we have seen, the Latin r has a natural tendency to commutation with d. Consequently, its absorption or assimilation in -hend-o, fend-o, would follow as a matter of course. And thus fer-o, fen-d-o, and fer-io, establish their claim to be considered as members of the same fer-tile stock.