vanquished Lucumo of Rome took refuge, not at Clusium, but at Cumæ1, with Porsena's great enemy Aristodemus2, whom he made his heir, and who subsequently defeated and slew Aruns Porsena, when, with a Clusian army, he made war on Aricia, and endeavoured to found a Tuscan empire in Latium.

§ 18. (b) Fragmentary records of the early Constitution of Rome.

The inferences derivable from these traditions are materially confirmed by some fragmentary records of the constitutional history of early Rome. The revolutionary movement, by which the second Tarquinius was expelled, is always connected with the influence and agency of Junius Brutus, who then held the office of Tribunus Celerum. The result of this revolution was to substitute two consules or colleagues for the old kingly government. But whenever it was thought advisable, on great emergencies, to revert to the authority of a single chief, we find that this Dictator, as he was called, appeared as a Magister Populi, or head of the old patrician tribes, and that he was invariably associated with a Magister Equitum, or head of the plebeian knights, whom the elder Tarquin admitted to the full franchise, and so made his senate to consist of Patres, or original deputies, and Conscripti, or additional counsellors. The Duumviri Perduellionis and other ancient dualisms pointed out by Niebuhr are additional indications of a two-fold division of the Roman people long before the growth of the later plebs. Now if the second order corresponded to the Luceres, as opposed to the combined populus of Ramnes and Tities, we can easily see that the Tarquinian influence, as exercised by Cæles Vivenna and Mastarna, was favourable not only to the Celeres or richer class among the

1 Cramer's Italy, II. p. 150.

2 There are many traces of the connexion of the Roman Tuscans with the Greeks. The first Tarquin himself is represented as half a Greek; and Macaulay has pointed out very clearly the Greek features of the second Tarquinian legend (Lays of Ancient Rome, p. 80). The equestrian games of the Tarquins, and their reverence for the Delphic oracle, also imply frequent intercourse with Greece, of which we read still more distinctly in the case of Pyrgi, the renowned port of Agylla, or Cære, another Etruscan town, which, like Tarquinii, was intimately connected with Rome.

Luceres, but also to the Proletarians, and generally to the whole population; whereas the second Tarquinius is indicated by his whole history as having endeavoured to reduce and degrade the inferior order of his subjects, until some final outrage roused the whole city to vengeance, the Luceres however taking the lead under the guidance of their legitimate leader the Tribunus Celerum. The result of this revolution was to reduce the populus, or two elder tribes, to a footing of tolerable equality with the Luceres; and the lays or legends represent the latter as having purchased their position by a pre-eminence of sufferings and of services, both in the expulsion of the Tarquinian dynasty and in the subsequent resistance to the foreign domination of the Clusians.

19. (c) Etymology of some mythical proper names.

A great deal of new light may be derived from a careful examination of the proper names Horatius and Lucretius, the former representing the inferior position of the populace, the latter the local designation of the Luceres. The word Hor-atius is derived from the old Latin word hir, "a hand," and is therefore a longer form of Hir-tius, just as Curiatius is of Cur-tius. The fight between the Horatii and Curiatii probably refers to a contest between the Curiatii (koupηTes), “men of the curia, and wielders of the spear, or wearers of the helmet," and the Hõrātii (xeрvñtes), “handicraftsmen," i. e. the lower order, in which contest, as usual, the latter succeeded in maintaining their just rights. In the old tradition it is uncertain which of the two fought for Alba (Liv. I. 24), i. e. whether the Latin or Sabine interest was at that time predominant at Rome. The story about Horatius Cocles admits of a similar interpretation. The Tuscans were repelled at the bridge-head by the three Roman tribes-Lartius (Larth, Lars, " prince" or "king") representing the head-tribe, Herminius the second, and Horatius the third. The surname Cocles still farther explains the name Horatius in its opposition to Curiatius. The ancients knew that this word meant one-eyed (Plin. H. N. XXXVII. 55), and I have elsewhere suggested that it may be derived from cæculus (N. Crat. § 154). The last part is undoubtedly that derivative from i-re, which is found in mil-it-es, ped-it-es, equ-it-es, &c. With the Romans, as with other nations, the ideas of being and

going are interchangeable (N. Crat. § 269), and therefore we should not press the meaning of this termination farther than by saying that cocles is a form analogous to miles, &c. Now the other term for one-eyed is luscus, which is to be compared with λocós, λočias. This last word, as the name of the archergod, Apollo, refers unquestionably to the oblique or side-long position of the bowman in the act of shooting; and there is no reason why the same explanation should not apply to the cocl-it-es, who will thus represent the λol or light-armed troops of the commonalty. As in the case of David and Goliath, the triumph is greater when there is an inequality in the arms; and this no doubt was felt to enhance the Horatian victory and the successful defence of the Pons Sublicius. Considered as an army, the Romans fell into the following subdivisions-the populus or patrician oπλîται, the celeres or plebeian knights, and the plebs, i. e. πλñ¤os, or multitudo, who were the milites, properly so called, "the common soldiers who marched in a body," and who were by virtue of their armour merely coclites, or "shooters." And thus the magister populi and magister equitum, or tribunus celerum, will stand in a military opposition to the tribuni plebis. The separation between the populus and plebs, which is most strongly indicated by the refusal of the connubium, or right of intermarriage, to the latter, renders it possible that the patricians were called proceres, " wooers," or proci patricii, "patrician suiters" (Festus, p. 249, Müller), with particular reference to this crowning mark of political equality. And a comparison of proceres with celeres might lead us to infer, that, while the original patres were termed proci, the celeres or conscripti were designated as proceres, the termination indicating the later acquisition of the connubium. The meaning of the name Herminius is not obvious at first sight; it does not sound like a Latin name. When however we call to mind that the most ancient name for a noble warrior in Greek was npws, which may be proved to be equal to p-Faoт-s=np-pwT-s, "the lord-warrior" (N. Crat. § 329), and when we recollect that herus is a good Latin word, and that min is found in ho-min-, ne-min-, &c., we may well suppose that Her-minius represents a form analogous to pws, and therefore that, as Lartius typifies the nobles, and Horatius the common people, so Herminius personifies the warriors of Rome. And this explanation of the name is quite in accordance with the meaning of the word Hermann or

Hirmin (the Arminius of Tacitus) in those Low-German languages with which the Sabine and other Italian idioms were so intimately connected. Grimm says (Deutsche Mythol. p. 328, 2d edit.): "die Sachsen scheinen in Hirmin einen kriegerisch dargestellten Wôdan verehrt zu haben." We find a further confirmation in the fact, that his name was Titus Herminius; for not only does Titus signify "warrior" (Fest. p. 366, Müller: "Tituli milites appellantur quasi tutuli, quod patriam tuerentur, unde et Titi prænomen ortum est"), but the Titienses, or Tities, were actually "the Sabine quirites (spearmen)," the second tribe at Rome. By a similar personification, the senior consul, Valerius, who as poplicola represents the populus, has under his orders Titus Herminius, the "warriors," and Spurius Lartius the "young nobles1;" while the other consul, Lucretius, represents the Luceres, or third class of citizens (Liv. II. 11). Even Lucretia may be nothing more than a symbol of the third order of the populus; so that her ill-treatment by Sextus will be an allegory referring to the oppression of the Luceres, who often approximated to the plebs, by the tyrannical Etruscan dynasty. It is also singular that Lucretius and Horatius, both representatives of the third class, succeed one another in the first consulship. The prænomen of Spurius Lartius does not appear to be the Latin spurius, "illegitimate," but a Tuscan derivative from super, the first vowel being omitted, according to the Tuscan custom, and the second softened into u, as in augur (also perhaps a Tuscan word) for aviger. That Spurius was a Tuscan name appears from the derivative Spurinna.

If, as seems probable, Cales is only a modification of Cares, the name of Cales Vivenna will indicate him as one of the Carites, that is as belonging to the most purely Pelasgian part of South Etruria. And then we have an additional confirmation of our belief that the Tarquinian dynasty was in the first instance at least Pelasgo-Tyrrhenian, rather than Rasenic or Rætian.

20. General Conclusion as to the mutual Relations of the old Italian Tribes.

These traditionary facts and philological deductions enable us to come to a fixed conclusion on the subject of the old population

1 At a later period these two are combined in the one designation Lars Herminius (Liv. III. 65).

of Italy, and the relations of the different tribes to one another. How they stood related to the Transpadane members of the great European family is a subsequent inquiry; but within the limits of Italy proper, we may now say, there were originally two branches of one great family,—the Umbrians, extending from the Po to the Tiber; and the Oscans, occupying the southern half of the peninsula. These nations were combined, in different degrees, with Pelasgians from the north-east. The main body of these Pelasgians assumed a distinct nationality in Etruria, and established a permanent empire there, which the Umbrians could never throw off. Another great horde of Pelasgians was settled in Latium, where they were afterwards partially conquered by the Oscans; and a mixed population of Pelasgians and Oscans extended to the very south of Italy. The Sabines, however, who were members of the Umbrian family, returned from the hills, to which the Pelasgians had driven them, and pressed upon the other Umbrians, upon the Oscans, and upon those Latins who were a mixture of conquered Pelasgians and Oscan conquerors. The combination of a branch of these Sabines with a branch of the Latins settled on the Tiber constituted the first beginnings of that Roman people which, standing in the midst of these Pelasgian and Oscan races, eventually became a point of centralisation for them all. Not to speak of any Celtic substratum, which we have many reasons for assuming, we may feel assured that up to the commencement of history the population of ancient Italy consisted entirely of this admixture or juxta-position of Umbro-Oscan and Tyrrheno-Pelasgian tribes. But about the time when the ancient annalists begin to speak definitely, the south of the peninsula became studded with Greek colonies, and the north was conquered by a Rætian tribe, the Rasena or Etruscans properly so called; and while the Greeks never spread themselves in the northern provinces, the surging tide of the Etruscan invasion was beaten back from the walls of Rome; and the Gauls, who at a later period endeavoured to extend their settlements to the south of the Tiber, were obliged to content themselves with the still remoter districts beyond the Rubicon.