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use of the modern Greek. Their alphabet consists of 36 letters, the forms of which have a strong resemblance to those of the old Greek alphabet.

Literature. Sciences and arts were introduced by Peter the Great, and encouraged by the late empress, who also founded a number of schools for the education of the lower classes of her subjects. There are three universities, one at Petersburg, one at Moscow, and one at Kiof. The imperial academy of sciences, at Petersburg, ranks among the first literary institutions of Europe. There is also an academy of arts, and another, of the Russian language.

Manners and customs. The Russians, properly so called, are hardy, vigorous, and patient of labour to an incredible degree. The dress of the higher ranks is after the French and English fashions; and all wear a covering of fur six months in the year. They have an extreme fondness for their native soil, and are seldom seen in other countries.

They are superstitious, and entertain many fantastic notions respecting departed souls. The priests give a passport to those who are dying, entreating St. Peter to open the gates of heaven, and certifying that the bearer has been a good christian.

There are no capital punishments, except in cases of high treason. But the Russians are remarkable for the severity and variety of punishments, inflicted for other crimes. Many criminals die under the tortures of the knout, the fatigues of their journies to Siberia, and the hardships they suffer in the mines.

Government. The sovereign of Russia is absolute. He must be of the Greek church. The only written fundamental law is that of Peter 1. by which the right of succession depends entirely on the choice of the reigning monarch. The emperor has unlimited power over the lives and property of all his subjects, the nobility as well. as the peasantry. The provinces are ruled by governors, appointed by the sovereign.

Army and Navy. The army amounted in 1805 to 558,120 men. Russia has 32 new sail of the line, and 18 frigates; 12 old line of battle ships, and 200 gallies and gun boats, principally in the Baltic, Black and Mediter

ranean seas.

Cities. PETERSBURG, on the Neva, near the gulf of

Finland, is the capital of Russia. Peter the Great laid the foundation of it in 1703, and, from a morass, which contained only a few fishermen's huts, arose a city which now contains 271,230 inhabitants, 35 great churches, and many splendid palaces. It is defended by the fortress of Cronstadt, and is enclosed by a rampart 14 miles in circumference. It carries on an extensive commerce.

Moscow, 555 miles southeast of Petersburg, contains 12,500 houses, and 300,000 souls. Its circumference, within the ramparts, is 26 miles. It has 1800 places of worship. Their bells are of a stupendous size, one of which weighed 216 tons. Moscow is the centre of the inland commerce of Russia.

ARCHANGEL, On the Dwina, near the White sea, is a place of some commerce, and has 1200 houses, and 7200 inhabitants.

RIGA, is a strong and populous town, and next to Petersburg, the most commercial of any in Russia. It is the capital of the government of Livonia, and has 1236 houses, and 30,000 inhabitants.

History. Little was known of Russia till near the close of the 15th century, when John Bazílowitz I. great duke of Moscovy, threw off the yoke of the Tartars, to whom Russia had long been subject, and assumed the title of Czar. But Peter the Great is the most deservedly celebrated of all the sovereigns of Russia. Perhaps no country ever exhibited, in so short a time, the wonders that may be effected by the genius and exertions of one man. At his accession to the throne, he found his subjects of all ranks in the grossest ignorance and barbarism; his numerous armies ferocious and undisciplined; he had neither merchant ships nor men of war, which rendered Russia of little consequence in the politics of Europe. Peter civilized his barbarous subjects, disciplined his army, built cities and fortresses, and created a navy. These national improvements have been continued since his time, and Russia now holds a rank, among the powers of Europe, of which human foresight, at the beginning of the last century, could have formed no conception.

The present emperor of Russia is Alexander I who ascended the throne, March 24, 1801, the day after the assassination of his father, Paul I.

RUSSIAN ISLES. isles of OISEL and DAGO, which are full of rocks. CRONSTADT, in the gulf of Finland, is remarkable for an excellent haven, which is the chief station of the Russian fleet. It has 40,000 inhabitants.

In the Baltic, Russia possesses the

NOVA-ZEMBLA, a large island in the Arctic ocean, belongs to Russia, from which it is separated by the strait of Wiigate. It has no inhabitants but foxes, bears, and other wild beasts.

The islands of SPITZBERGEN, styled by some EastGreenland, from a supposed connection with Greenland proper, in North America, lie in the Arctic ocean, between Greenland and Nova Zembla. The main land of Spitzbergen extends 300 miles, from lat. 76° 30′ to 80°. The coast is lined with craggy mountains; in winter, it is continual night for four months. The animals are white bears and foxes. There are no settled inhabitants, and it is known only to those who go on the coast for whales. The only vegetable here is a willow, two inches high.

POLAND.

IN 1772, Poland was bounded on the north by the Baltic and Russia; east by Russia; south by Little Tartary, Moldavia and Hungary; west by Germany and the Baltic. The territory included in these limits is 800 miles long, and 700 broad. It is divided into Great Poland, Little Poland, and Lithuania; each of which is again divided into palatinates or provinces.

Poland was anciently the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to invade the Roman empire. It was erected into a dutchy, of which Lechus was the first duke, A. D. 694. It became a kingdom, A. D. 1000; Otho II. emperor of Germany, conferring the title of king on Boleslaus I.

In 1772, a partition of this country, projected by the king of Prussia, was effected by that monarch in conjunction with the empress of Russia, and the emperor of Germany; by which one third of Poland was divided among these powers. In 1792, the empress of Russia and king of Prussia planned a second partition, which took place

in 1793. These multiplied oppressions at last roused the spirit of the nation. General Kosciusko, in 1794, appeared at the head of a Polish army, to assert the independence of his country, and to recover the provinces wrested from it. He was successful at first against the king of Prussia, but was afterwards defeated and taken prisoner by the Russians. Warsaw, the capital, was taken and plundered, by the Russians, in 1793. Five thousand Polish troops fell in defence of the place; and 9000 citizens, men, women and children were massacred. The unfortunate king, Stanislaus III. was compelled to make a formal resignation of his crown and kingdom into the hands of his bloody conquerors, and was a state prisoner till his death, which happened at Petersburg, February 11, 1798.

The distribution of Poland, after this period, was as follows: to Russia, Courland, Samogitia, the greater part of Lithuania, Polesia, Volhinia, and Podolia, having, according to Hassel, a population of 4,223,300. To Austria, Little Poland, a part of Podolia, now called Galicia and Lodomiria, and part of Masovia. To Prussia, Great Poland, Polachia, a part of Masovia and Lithuania.

Since the late peace among the powers of Europe, Poand has been restored to her former rank among the nations, and her territory to its former limits.

PRUSSIA.

Extent and Boundaries. EXCLUSIVE of small detached territories, the kingdom of Prussia extends from the river Oder west, to the Memel east, about 600 miles. The breadth, from the southern limit of Silesia to Dantzie exceeds 300 miles.* On the east and south, Prussia is bounded by the dominions of Poland, Russia and Austria; west by Germany; north by the Baltic.

Divisions and Population. The following countries, in 1801, composed the Prussian monarchy:

Eastern Prussia

Western Prussia

Southern Prussia

New Eastern Prussia

Pomerania
Brandenburg
New March
Magdeburg

*The restoration of Poland has reduced these limits.

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Mark

Baireuth

Neufchatel and Vallengin

The whole of these divisions, according to Hoeck, contained 8,021,149 inhabitants. Since the battle of Jena, in 1807, in which the French were victorious, and which was followed by almost a complete conquest of Prussia, the extent of this kingdom has been considerably lessened.

Climate. The climate of Prussia, though mild and free from humidity in some provinces, is generally cold and moist. Prussia proper is said to have eight months winter, and its autumn deluged with rain.

Lakes and Rivers. There are several lakes in Prussia of considerable extent. That called the Spelding Lee extends about 20 miles in every direction. One of the chief rivers is the Elbe, rising in Bohemia, and passing through the dutchy of Magdeburg. The Oder is perhaps the only river which can be considered entirely Prussian. The other chief rivers are the Russe, and Niemen or Memei.

General Appearance and Productions. The only mountains in Prussia are those of Silesia. Except this province, the whole country is low and level. It produces much hemp, flax, and corn. Yellow amber is found along the sea coast. The domestic animals are numerous. Beside the common game, the forests abound in elks, wild asses, and the uri, an animal of a monstrous size, with a very thick and strong hide, which is sold at a great price.

Manufactures and Commerce. These are of little importance. Linen is made in Silesia; and some glass, iron, and paper, is manufactured in other parts.

The exports are amber, timber, corn, skins, leather, flax, and hemp. In return they receive wine and other products of the south of Europe.

Language and Literature. The language is German, except in the Polish provinces. Frederick the Great was one of the most distinguished authors the kingdom has produced. Literature and education are almost entirely neglected.

Government and Religion. The government is an absolute monarchy. No senate or delegates of the people are

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