to sought with unsanctified means to produce a pure result. It is true, their intentions were good; but that fare against them-he simply declared that he was not bound to follow the decrees of those Councils-that he was irresponsible to any power but God-made no difference, except in making their folly more apparent. As a natural consequence, they effected mischief-they instituted a General Council of the Churches. It was held for the first time at Nice, A.D. 315, with the concurrence, and under the express patronage of the Emperor Constantine; and 318 Bishops, in full assembly, passed a series of canons, of which the fourth reads as follows:-" It is especially requisite that a bishop be appointed by all the bishops in the province; but if this be difficult by reason of any urgent necessity, or through the length of the way, three must by all means meet together, and when those who are absent have agreed on their votes,. and signified the same by letters, then let the ordination take place; but in every province the ratification of what is done must be allowed to the metropolitan." (Labbé Concil. ii. 29.) a masterly manoeuvre, yet it appears a simple one. But the Roman Pontiff estimated its value, not by the reputation he gained for generalship, but by its ultimate results. He who was not responsible in his procedure any but God, was above all earthly power, either of the church or state. He assumed this position, and left the RESULTS to time, and the MEANS to his own intellect and energy; for he knew that men could not long behold a series of Spiritual Rulers, uttering such bold doctrines, without giving them some credence. Like Romulus, he offered an asylum and protection to every one who, by his ambition or his crimes, had disgraced his Christian profession. Had any bishop a dispute with his metropolitan, or was he expelled his office for any gross offence, he appealed to the Roman Bishop, and by that act of appeal personally acknowledged the supremacy of his see. Nor did the Pontiff neglect to answer those appeals, for he thus drew around him all the proud, energetic, and turbulent spirits of the age. His servants were bound to him by the two potent ties of fear and self-interest; and the " mystery of iniquity " grew apace, for spiritual darkness was fast covering the world. The man of sin," "the mystery of iniquity," was like the monstrous plants of the Eastern climes, which grow only in the dark and silent night. But though ambition was the dominant feeling of the Roman Bishop, there were others who felt its power. The Roman Emperor-the astute and wily Patriarch of the East the African churches, and many of the Western Bishops, who were equally aspiring as the Roman one, were not unaware of the nature and tendency of such a system of policy, and they resorted to a plan which men have often tried, and will try again-they The evidence of this canon is very very valuable, inasmuch as it shows the constitution of the church, at that time, and also the means by which, the Roman Bishop became an autocrat in his own diocese. It is manifest that there was a bishop in every city; that if any bishop died, or was otherwise removed, the election of a successor devolved on those remaining, and this choice was ratified or annulled by the metropolitan, or patriarch, who was the superior of all. It is evident that the Roman Bishop had been usurping authority by appointing his own partizans to vacant bishoprics, without the previous consent, or contrary to the previous decision of the other inferior bishops; so that in time, all the bishops in the Roman diocese, having been chosen by the Roman Pontiff alone, his triumph over the privileges and authority of the bishops of the cities was complete; and the existing bishops of the cities would not dare to reclaim their THE PROHIBITED SATÍRE. The following extract from a letter of M. Roussel, in the Archives du Christianisme, will explain a very little piece of work, which that witty. controversialist has just produced, but which the government prohibits him from publishing in France ; "Paris, January 7, 1848. "How unlucky I am. If I publish a tract, I am summoned before the king's attorney. If I open a place of worship, they prosecute me. If I write a letter to the priests, they send me before the grand jury. This time I wished to do as little as possible for me. I insculled a picture, and they refused ine license to publish it. Here is the fact. "I caused the interior of a Roman Catholic church to be engraved, with all the apparatus of confessionals, statues, pictures, chaplets, &c. No harm, thus far, thought I, in the eyes of our most Catholic gov rament. Afterward, I attached to each of these objects a biblical sentence. Who could complain of this without condemning himself? Nothing, therefore, appeared to me more innocent than a church in which, on all sides, is inscribed the Word of God; the more so, because I endeavoured to put each inscription in connection with the object which it accompanied. On the statute itself I engraved, "Thou shalt not make unto me any graven image," (Ex. xx.) On the picture of the Virgin interceding, I put, "There is but one intercessor, namely, Jesus Christ." On the box in behalf of souls in purgatory, this exclamation of St. Peter, " Thy money perish with The thee, because thou hast thought that the gift of God may be purchased with_money." in the form of a stair, priest saying mass in Latin, walks on these lines "I had rather speak five words in the church so as to be understood, than ten thousand in an unknown tongue." A plaa mandate concarded door has for captioncerning Lent, and for the Order. “Whatsoever is sold in the shambles eat, asking no question from scruple of conscience." Further the tariff of prices, which is this, "Freely ye have received, freely give." At the other extreme, a man is counting his beads, kneeling on a bench on which is this inscription, "When ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathen do." The tabernacle containing some dozen of Jesus Christs, presents on its door these words of the Saviour," If any man say unto you, lo, here is Christ, believe him not." "Whom the heavens must receive until the times of restitution of all things." But this I imagine will be sufficient to give you an idea of my engraving, and to show you that my passages are well chosen. I shall even own to you, that I have the weakness to look upon my work as a little chef-d'œuvre. "Well, would you believe it? The engra ving, containing but the simple interior of a church, and some sentences from the Bible, was not allowed to be published."-SELECTED. LETTERS FROM EUROPE. NO. XX. MY DEAR CLARINDA-While on the subject of the Literary Institutions of England, I must not forget the ancient, and venerable, and long cele brated University of Oxford. My visit to it was, indeed, but a call; but while on the spot and its environs, I was diligent to ascertain so much of its past and present condition as I could gather from the best sources of information. In looking especially into the condition and history of Merton College, one of the most ancient and reputable, I learned that this institution was as old as the earlier part of the 13th century; and, like Cambridge, owed its origin to the policy or benevolence of the Roman Catholic community, then in possession of the Western Roman Empire, with but a small reservation. Merton College was removed from Surrey to Oxford in 1274. The University of Oxford, governed by two Houses-that of Congregation and that of Convocation; and, like Cambridge, sending two members to the British Parliament, is a corporation of nineteen Colleges and five Halls. 66 Colleges are all endowed with estates, and are incorporated bodies. Halls are not so, although some of them have "exhibitions" towards the maintenance of certain students. The Principals or Heads of the Halls receive annual rents for the chambers inhabited by the students, who live at their own expense. The Chancellor of the University has the disposal of the Headships of all the Halls except that of St. Edmund Hall, which is in the appointment of the Provost and Fellows of Queen's College. With respect to every academical privilege, the members of Halls stand precisely on the same footing with those of the Colleges. Their discipline, course of studies, length of residence, examinations, degrees, dress, and expenses, are the same as the Colleges. Every College and Hall has a governor, whose nominal distinctions vary. They are called in different Colleges, Dean, Rector, Provost, Warden, President, Master, and Principal. The Heads of Halls are called Principals." be "The members of the University may divided into two classes those on the foundation, commonly called Dependent Members; and those not on the foundation, termed Independent Members. The Dependent Members derive emolument from the revenue of their societies, and on some of them the management and discipline of the whole body devolve. "The Independent Members consist of such persons as repair to the University for their education and degrees; but who, as they have no claim on the estate of the society to which they belong, so they possess no voice nor authority in its management; and during their residence in a College or Hall, they are supported at their own expense. "The Dependent Members, or Members on the Foundation, are as follows: "The Head of the College, the Fellows, (called Students at Christ Church) the Scholars (called Demies at Magdalen, and Postmasters at Merton) Chaplains, Exhibitioners, Bible Clerks, and Servitors. "Under the head of Members on the Foun dation, may also be included the College Officers, who are chosen from among the Fellows; and some of the servants hereafter mentioned. "The Head of a College (except in the instance of Christ Church, where the Dean is nominated by the Crown; and Worcester, lor of the University) is chosen by the Fellows, where the Provost is appointed by the Chancelfrom those who are or have been Fellows of the Society. The qualifications for Fellowships vary in almost every Society. The Fellows are, according to the statutes of the College, or the will of the Founder, elected from certain public schools, and admitted on their arrival in Oxford; or they are young men, who, having studied and distinguished themselves in other colleges, offer themselves as candidates, and are selected by they are confined to the natives of particular counties, or elected from the Scholars; and in others, the kindred of the Founder have peculiar privileges. The Fellows, in conjunction with the Head of the College, are, in all cases, the directors of the internal regulation of their Society, and the managers of its property and estates; and from among this body the Church Preferment attached to every College, is distributed, according to seniority, as a vacancy the votes of the Fellows. In some Societies occurs." The Scholars are, in a few Colleges, Probationary Fellows; although, in some others, the attainment of a Scholarship is attended with no other beneficial consequence than the receipt of a stated annual sum towards the education of the person who holds it. Strangers are often perplexed with the terms Scholar and Student, and sometimes apply them indiscriminately to all members of the University. For their information we repeat, that by a Scholar is meant the person who holds the rank above mentioned; and that a Student is one of the 101 members of that name at Christ Church, whose rank is similiar to that of Fellow of other Colleges. "The Chaplain has a stipend, and generally chambers and provisions in his College. His duty consists in the performance of divine service in the chapel. "A Bible Clerk performs a different duty in various Colleges, and his stipend, and the fund from which it arises, differ in like manner. He is required to attend the service of the chapel, and to deliver in a list of the absent undergraduates to the officer appointed to enforce the discipline of the college. K-K "Exhibitioners, although not on the Foundation, may be reckoned amongst the Dependent Members, as they receive from particular schools, from the bequest of private persons, or from the colleges themselves, a stipend, which assists in supporting them during the collegiate residences. Many of the London Companies have Exhibitions of this description in their gift. "The Servitors also may be considered as Dependent Members, having certain emoluments from their Society, whilst they enjoy all the benefits of a collegiate education. "In each college one of the Fellows is appointed to superintend its management during the absence of the Head: he takes his title from that of the governor of the college, VicePresident, Sub-Rector, &c. “The Tutors undertake the directions of the classical, mathematical, and other studies of the junior members; they prepare them for the public examinations, and furnish them with advice and assistance in other respects; many of the Undergraduates have also private tutors. "The office of Dean, (or Censor of Christ Church,) consists in the due prevervation of the college discipline. He also presents the candidates for degrees in Arts, in the House of Convocation. "The Bursar receives the rents from the estates and other property belonging to the college; he disburses all sums necessary for the expenses of the Society, and pays the stipends of the Fellows, Scholars, &c. He is generally assisted by another officer, entitled Junior Bursar. "In colleges that have choirs, the singing clerks, choristers, and organists, may also be reckoned among the Dependent Members. "The established college servants are the Butler, who has the care of the books in which the names of the members are entered, the college plate, &c. and who delivers out bread, beer, butter, and cheese; the Maniciple, who purchases the provisions; the Cook, and the Porter; also, the Barber, or Tonsor, who was formerly of considerable consequence; so much so, that to this day the Vice-Chancellor and Proctors entertain the Fraternity, which is an incorporated company, with an annual supper at their apartments. No barber nor hair-dresser can practise his trade in the University unless he be matriculated; that is, unless his name be entered in the book of the University, before the Vice-Chancellor, when he takes the oath of matricualation. Every Member of the University, and every person who enjoys the privileges of that body, matriculated. The Member, at his entrance, appears before the Vice-Chancellor, describes his rank in life: that is, whether he be the son of a Nobleman, a Baronet, a Gentleman, or a Plebeian, and pays a matriculation fee accordingly. He then subscribes to the XXXIX Articles, and swears to observe all the statutes, privileges, and customs of the University; and, if he be 16 years of age, takes the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. The oath at the matriculation of a privileged person, not a member of any College or Hall, is as follows:-You shall swear to observe all statutes, privileges, and customs of this University. You shall further swear, that you will never sue in any cause of yours before the Mayor and Balliffs of this town, nor answer before them as your Judge, as long as you continue to enjoy the privileges of the University. "The Indepenent Members are Noblemen; Gentlemen Commoners, (at Worcester College called Fellow-Commoners); and Commoners. "The Noblemen are Peers and sons of Peers of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In proceeding to their degrees, they submit to the same forms, and undergo the same examinations as every other member of the University. "Gentlemen Commoners are young men of family and fortune, who are educated at their own expense. The fees, &c. of a Nobleman and Gentleman Commoner are higher than those of a Commoner. A Commoner is a young gentleman who resides in the University at his own expense. "It may be proper to observe, that all members of the University are placed on the same footing with regard to discipline, and that neither rank nor riches can, in the slightest degree, tolerate any infringement of the statutes, nor advance their possessors to academical distinctions, in the absence of the real substantial claim of literary merit." "UNIVERSITY DEGREES. The first degree taken in the Uunversity is that of Bachelor of Arts: for this a residence of sixteen terms is necessary, Michaelmas and Hilary Terms requiring six weeks, Easter and Trinity three weeks residence, according to the regulations of the University; for the colleges vary as to the time they require their own members to reside; but in no case can it fall short of the period prescribed by the University. As the term in which any one is matriculated, and that in which he takes his degree, are excepted, and two more are dispensed with by Congregation, the residence may, in point of fact, be stated at twelve terms. The sons of the English, Scotch, and Irish Peers, and the eldest sons of Baronets and Knights, when matriculated as such, and not on the Foundation of any College, are allowed to have their degrees after having completed three years. Previously to admission to this degree, it is neccesary to undergo two examinations: the first termed Responsions; the second, a Public Examination. Responsions must be performed from the sixth to the ninth term inclusive, when the Examination is in the Classics and Logic, or the Elements of Euclid. After entering the fourth year of residence, the candidate must be publicly examined in the rudiments of religion, including a knowledge of the gospels in the original Greek, the Classics, Rhetoric, Moral Philosophy, Logic, and Latin Composition, to which the candidate may add Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. If the candidates distinguish themselves, they are placed, according to their merit, in the first, second, third, or fourth class, and their names published. The list which is alphabetical, points out whether a candidate excelled in the Litera Humaniores, (Classics, &c.) or in the Discipline Mathematicæ et Physide, (Mathematices and Natural Philosophy,) and it is by no means a rare case to find the same name placed in the first class of both the honorable columns. The fifth class consists of such as have not distinguished themselves in their examination, and their names are not published. The examinations take place in the Schools, before the Examining Masters, who are always gentlemen eminent for their learning. A Bachelor is entitled to his degree of Master of Arts twelve terms after the regular time for taking his first degree, without any further examination. One term of intermediate residence, comprising one and twenty days, is all that is requisite. "A Student in Civil Law undergoes the same examination as that for Bachelor of Arts, previously to his being admitted Bachelor of Civil Law. The number of terms to be kept for this degree is twenty-eight, which, by dispensation, may be reduced to seventeen. A Bachelor of Divinity receives his degree 7 years from the time of his Regency, which is taken out the first Act after his Master's Degree. The ACT is the first Tuesday in July. No one is entitled to vote in the University until he has taken his Regency. "A Doctor of Divinity, four years after his degree of Bachelor of Divinity; a Doctor in Civil Law, five years from his Bachelor's degree; a Bachelor in Medicine, one year from his Regency; a Doctor in Medicine, three years after his degree of Bachelor. If the time be completed, the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor may be taken on the same day. "For the degree of Bachelor and Doctor of Music, no examination in the Schools is necessary, as for other degrees; but the candidates prepare a composition, which, being previously examined and approved by the Professor of Music, is publicly performed in the Music School, before the Vice-Chancellor, and other officers of the University, with such of the members as think proper to attend." UNIVERSITY DRESSES. "Graduates—The Doctor in Divinity has three dresses: the first consists of a gown of scarlet cloth, with black velvet sleeves and facings, a cassock, sash, and scarf. This dress is worn on all public occasions in the Theatre, in public processions, and on those Sundays and Holydays which are marked thus (*) in the Oxford Calendar. The second is a habit of scarlet cloth, and a hood of the same color, lined with black, and a black silk scarf: the Master of Arts' gown is worn under his dress, the sleeves appearing through the arm-holes of the habit. This is the dress of business; it is used in Convocation, Congregation, at morning sermons at St. Mary's during term, with the exception of the morning sermon on Quinquagesima Sunday, and the morning sermons in Lent. The third, which is the usual dress in which a Doctor in Divinity appears, is a Master of Arts' gown with cassock, sash, and scarf. The Vice-Chancellor and Heads of Colleges and Halls have no distinguishing dress, but appear, on all occasions, as Doctors in the faculty to which they belong. "The dresses by Graduates in Law and Physic are nearly the same. The Doctor has three; the first is a gown of scarlet cloth, with sleeves and facings of pink silk, and a round black velvet cap. This is the dress of state. The second consists of a habit and hood of scarlet cloth, the habit faced, and the hood lined with pink silk. The habit, which is perfectly analogous to the second dress of the Doctor in Divinity, has lately grown into disuse; it is, however, retained by the Professors, and is always used in presenting to degrees. The third, or common dress of a doctor in Law or Physic, nearly resembles that of the Bachelor in these faculties; it is a black silk gown, richly ornamented with black lace. The hood of the Bachelor of Law (worn as a dress) is of purple silk, lined with white fur. "The dress worn by the Doctor of Music on public occasions is a rich white damask silk gown, with sleeves and facings of crimson satin, a hood of the same materials, and a round black velvet cap. The usual dresses of the Doctor and of the Bachelor in Music are nearly the same as those of Law and Physic. "The Master of Arts wears a black gown, usually made of Prince's stuff or crape, with long sleeves, which are remarkable for the circular cut at the bottom. The arm comes through an aperture in the sleeve, which hangs down. The hood of a Master of Arts is black silk, lined with crimson. "The gown of a Bachelor of Arts is also usually made of Prince's stuff or crape. It has a full sleeve, looped up at the elbow, and terminating in a point; the dress hood is black, trimmed with fur. Noblemen and Gentlemen Commoners, who take the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts, wear their gowns of silk. Undergraduates-The Nobleman has two dresses; the first, which is worn in the Theatre, in processions, and on all public occasions, is a gown of violet figured damask silk, richly ornamented with gold lace. The second is a black silk gown, with full sleeves; it has a tippet attached to the shoulders. With both these dresses is worn a square capof black velvet, with a gold tassel. "The Gentleman Commoner has two gowns, both of black silk; the first, which is considered as a dress-gown, although worn on all occasions, at pleasure, is richly ornamented with tassels. The second, or un-dress gown, is ornamented |