His mendacity and plagiarism

five Latin versions are all evidently made from the French original, and in no case by the author himself, containing errors which he could not have committed. The standard Latin version was made at Liège, a strong confirmation of the author's and D'Outremeuse's statements that he dwelt in that city. The other four were made in England, a good proof that his work attracted special attention in this country, and that he was regarded as an Englishman. England also has more vernacular versions than any other country, while so great was the popularity of the book that translations appeared in all the chief European languages, and even in Bohemian and Irish. All translations except the Latin, so far as the evidence of the extant manuscripts extends, date from the fifteenth century. The earliest manuscript of the original French with a date was written in 1371, which agrees well with Mandeville's statement that he wrote his book in 1356.

There was no reason against Burgoyne, supposing him to be the author, employing the name of Mandeville if he thought fit: and a conclusive reason for his adopting some pseudonym may be found in a circumstance not creditable to him, the mendacity of his narrative. It is doubly unveracious, not only as being replete with fictions, but with fictions plagiarised from other writers. It actually transfers Cæsar's description of Britain to the Far East. It professes to be the work of an eye-witness, but, in fact, almost everything in it is derived from some older traveller or historian: and it would be impossible to prove that the author had seen any of the countries which he claims to have visited, though it is not improbable that he may have had some personal acquaintance with Egypt and Syria. To have published his book under his own name would therefore have been to have exposed himself to the awkward questions and damaging criticisms of bonâ fide travellers, from which he prudently screened himself by a pseudonym.

The following analysis of Mandeville's travels, abridged from the article upon him in the Encyclopædia Britannica by Colonel Yule and Mr. E. W. B. Nicholson (who was the first to discover his connection with D'Outremeuse), shows both the subject and the sources of his book:

I.-III. The way to Constantinople, the Greek Islands.

IV.-V. Constantinople, Rhodes, Cyprus, Egypt, the Sinaitic peninsula, mostly

derived from the German traveller Boldensele.

V.-X. Palestine, the most original part of the work, but indebted to Boldensele.

XI. Syria and Tartary, the latter not from personal experience.

XII. The Saracens and their religion, mainly from Boldensele.

XIII.-XX. Journey eastward, mainly from Odoric.

XXI. Tartar history, mainly from Haytor the Armenian.

XXII. The court of the great Khan, mainly from Odoric.

XXIII. Customs of the Tartars, chiefly from Carpini.

XXIV.-XXX. Chiefly romantic and fabulous matter about Prester John, the Old Man of the Mountain, the Tartarian lamb, the Valley Perilous, and the like, principally from Odoric, with a large admixture from other sources.

It is probable that Mandeville was not always acquainted at first hand with the authorities from whom he plagiarised, but knew some of them only in the

MANDEVILLE AS A TRAVELLER

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Speculum of Vincent de Beauvais. Tried by modern standards, he must be pronounced a dishonest writer. His merit is to have condensed and brought to a focus much of the Oriental lore, true and fabulous, which before him was floating about in a diffused condition.

The best compendious information respecting Mandeville will be found in the article in the Encyclopædia Britannica and in the article in the Dictionary

of National Biography by Dr. G. F. Warner, who first identified him with Burgoyne. Dr. Warner has also edited in sumptuous style and with abundant illustration the English translation preserved in the Egerton manuscript in the British Museum, which, according to Dr. Vogels, who has devoted especial attention to the subject of English translations, is an endeavour to restore the first English translation made from the Latin. later version, coming directly from the French original, has superior claims to

the position of a standard text. Our extracts are taken from the modernised edition of Mr. A. W. Pollard.

THE KHAN OF TARTARY ESCAPES BY HELP OF AN OWL.

Afterward it befell upon a day that the Can rode with a few meinie for to behold the strength of the country that he had won. And so befell that a great multitude of his enemies met with him, and for to give good example of hardiness to his people, he was the first that fought, and in the midst of his enemies encountered, and there he was cast from his horse, and his horse slain, and when his folk saw him at the earth, they were all abashed and weened that he had been dead, and flew every one, and their enemies after them and chased them, but they wist not that the emperor was there. And when the enemies were far pursuing the chase, the emperor hid him in a thick wood. And when they were come again from the chase they went and sought the woods if any of them had been hid in the thick of the woods; and many they found and slew them anon. So it happened that as they went marching towards the place that the emperor was, they saw an owl sitting upon a tree above him; and then they said amongst them that there was no man because they saw that bird there, and so they went their way; and thus escaped the emperor from death. And then he went privily all by night till he came to his folk that were glad of his coming, and made great thankings to God Immortal, and to that bird by whom their lord was saved. And therefore principally above all fowls of the world they worship the owl; and when they have any of their feathers they keep them full preciously instead of relics, and bear them upon their heads with great reverence; and they hold themselves blessed and safe from all perils while that they have them together, and therefore they bear their feathers upon their heads.

Every one will be reminded of the story of Mahomet and the spider. This was most likely the invention of a romancer; but it may be suspected that the Tartar tale was framed to account for the veneration paid by some tribe to the owl, a relic of animal worship of which they had become ashamed.

THE IMPRISONED JEWS OF THE TEN TRIBES.

In the same region be the mountains of Caspian that men clepe Uber in the country. Between those mountains the Jews of ten lineages be enclosed, that men clepe Goth and Magoth, and they may not go out on no side. There were enclosed twenty-two kings with their people, that dwelled between the mountains of Scythia. There King Alexander chased them between these mountains, and then he thought for to enclose them through work of his men. But when he saw that he might not do it, ne bring it to an end, he prayed to God of Nature that He would perform that that he had begun. And all were it so that he was a Paynim and not worthy to be heard, yet God of his grace closed the mountains together, so that they dwell there all fast locked and enclosed with high mountains all about, save only on one side, and on that side is the sea of Caspian.

And yet, nathless, men say that they shall go out in the time of Anti-Christ, and that they shall make great slaughter of Christian men. And therefore all the Jews that dwell in all lands learn always to speak Hebrew, in hope that when the other Jews shall go out that they may understand their speech, and to lead them into Christendom for to destroy the Christian people. For the Jews say that they know full well by their prophecies that they of Caspia shall go out, and spread throughout all the world, and that the Christian men shall be under their subjection as long as they have been in subjection of them.

And if that ye wit how that they shall find their way, after that I have heard say I shall tell you.

In the time of Anti-Christ a fox shall make there his train, and mine an hole where King Alexander let make the gates; and so long shall he mine and pierce the earth, till that he shall pass through toward that folk. And when they see the fox they shall have great marvel of him, because that they saw never such a beast. For of all other beasts