This connection of with the idea of life, and consequently of strength, power, is very remarkable, and needs further investigation. It seems, however, to be the foundation for two very interesting extensions of the use of the term, to which some allusion may be made.

First, as vitality, power, energy resided in the spirit, the term came to be used of a predominating state or direction of the mind, that which when it is temporary we designate a mood or humour or frame or temper, and when natural or habitual, a disposition or character. In the former sense Hosea speaks of "a spirit of whoredoms" being in Israel (iv. 12, v. 4), and Isaiah of "a spirit of deep sleep being poured out on them" (xxix. 10), i.e. of insensibility, and of "a spirit of perverseness" being in the Egyptians (xix. 14); and in the same sense, perhaps, another prophet speaks of "a spirit of grace and supplications (Zech. xii. 10). In the latter sense, that of a prevailing disposition or character, the Old Testament speaks of those who are "proud in spirit" (Eccles. vii. 8), "haughty in spirit" (Prov. xvi. 18), "hasty in spirit" (Eccles. vii. 9); and, on the other hand, of a "humble spirit" (Prov. xvi. 19), of a "patient spirit" (Eccles. vii. 8), a "faithful spirit," and the like (Prov. xi. 13). The word or 'soul' could hardly have been used in any of these examples.

Secondly, it is this same conception of power or energy or fuller life which is expressed when it is said that the Spirit of God is given to men, or when He comes upon them and moves them. It is said, for example, in reference to Samson, that the Spirit of God began to move him at times in the camp at Dan (Judg. xiii. 25); that the Spirit of God came upon him, and he rent the lion as he would a kid (xiv. 6)—the reference being to the great display of strength which he put forth. Similarly, it is said of Caleb that the "Spirit of God came upon him, and he judged Israel, and went out to war" (iii. 10). It is probable that the nomenclature regarding the Spirit coming on the prophets originated in this way. All exhibitions of power or energy, whether bodily or mental, are ascribed to the Spirit; and

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199

the excitation which characterised prophecy in its earlier stages was spoken of as the result of the Spirit—as Ezekiel still speaks of the "hand of the Lord" being on him. (iii. 14, 22, viii. 1, etc.). As prophecy became more purely ethical, and threw off excitement of an external kind, the internal revelation and moral elevation continued to be ascribed to the Spirit. But this revelation is not usually considered to be mere thought communicated, but rather an elevation and greater power of mind, which may, as in Isa. xi. 2, ramify into many directions as wisdom, judicial discernment, counsel, executive, and fear of the Lord.

4. The term 'Soul.'

Less needs to be said in regard to the soul or The soul as well as the spirit is used to designate the whole immaterial part of man-though with certain shades of difference in the conception. That the two are identical upon the whole appears from Job vii. 11: "I will speak in the anguish of my ; I will complain in the bitterness of my " Compare also iii. 20: "Why giveth He life to the bitter of ?" When God "breathed into man the breath of life," man became a "living " A creature that has life is V, an individual, a creature, or person. Even a dead person is Hence being the actual living creature that we see, with its many varieties, its form, its sensibilities, and the like, in a word, the living concrete individual, when the word was applied to the immaterial substratum of this life, the soul, the same concrete individual character, marked by sensibilities, desires, affections, still adhered to it. Therefore to the

belongs the personality of the individual. The 'soul' longs, pants, desires, melteth for heaviness, fainteth for God's salvation, abhorreth dainty meat, loathes, is satisfied, is bound down, cleaveth to the dust, quiets itself like a weaned child. The same epithets might be used of the and of the ; but they would scarcely have the same force. Applied to the they would describe the condition

more objectively as a condition of mental power, eg. a

broken spirit; applied to the condition more reflexively as individual.

they would describe the

one felt by the

or

Any distinction of a substantial or elemental kind between and is not to be understood. Neither is the higher than the , or more allied to God. But the idea of is vitality, strength, power, which is also the idea attached to the of God; and such influences

coming from God are influences of the , and are in man, or a strengthening of in man, because is man's nature on the side of its vitality, power, prevailing force, and the like.

but it is not modified, as if

.נפש

The is the bearer of the individual personality; concretised were There seems no such idea in the Old Testament. As it has or is the personality, most importance attaches to the in questions of immortality: "Thou wilt not leave my brought up my

to Sheol" (Ps. xvi. 10); "He hath from Sheol" (Ps. xxx. 3). But with

this we shall have to deal later.

To put it more exactly, the case is this:

are

(1) All influences exerted by God upon man influences of the Spirit of God. God exerting influence is the Spirit of God. The kind of influence which God exerts is dynamical; as we might say, it is a communication of life, or a potentiation of life; or of strength, power, in some region-particularly in the ethical and religious spheres.

(2) As God communicates power as 7, so the soul of man, in its nature as 7, receives the communication, i.e. it is affected with new power, energy, elevation; and as exhibiting power, energy, elevation, the soul of man is

(3) This does not imply that the from the, much less that the

in man is different. is higher than the The is the D as possessing or showing power, elevation, etc. For we have seen that when man's mind

נפיש

moved in any direction with a strong current, whether the

SPIRIT AND SOUL

201

current was temporary or permanent, it was described as a of such and such a kind; being a mood or temper or mental tendency when temporary, and being a character or disposition when permanent.

(4) Neither, finally, is the

the

individualised, or

the modified and made concrete in the individual. No doubt the individuality or personality is attributed to the often means 'a person.'

; hence

And also the

But the

is not first

is spoken of more abstractly. general and impersonal, and then impersonated in the ; rather the is spoken of as when exhibiting determination, indicating power, strength, and elevation; while as it is more simply the individual. Hence can be used even of a dead person. Hence, also, two concurrent ways of speaking of death: the returns to God who gave it (Eccles. xii. 7); or as in Job: "If God should gather to Himself His spirit and His breath, all flesh would perish together, and man turn into his dust" (xxxiv. 14). But, on the other hand, the descends into Sheol.

a

were נֶפֶשׁ If

as well

individualised, it is evident that man would not possess at all, only a . But the fact that his as his is spoken of, implies that and same things under different aspects. If man's

individualised, then the taking away the

are the were

would really

is left, and

leave nothing at death; while, in fact, the descends into Sheol. In our modes of thought we operate with substances, but the Hebrew mind operates rather with abstract conceptions which it treats and speaks of as things. Thus it is saying very little to say that the returns to God who gave it.' For that may mean nothing more than that the vitality which flowed from God is withdrawn by God, and the living person falls into weakness and death. It is altogether another thing when Psalmists go the length of saying that the' is taken by God, or that He redeems the ' from Sheol. Because the ' is the person, while the was but some vital energy, the withdrawal of which by God was death.

The main points reached, therefore, are these:

(a) That the flesh is not a moral term,-the flesh is not regarded as the source of sin,-and is not a term for sinful nature.

(b) The spirit of man and the soul of man are not different things, but the same thing under different aspects. 'Spirit' connotes energy, power, especially vital power; and man's inner nature in such aspects, as exhibiting power, energy, life of whatever kind, is spoken of as spirit. The same way of speaking prevails in regard to the Spirit of God. The Spirit of God is God operating powerfully, imparting life, communicating influence. Hence such influences of God when communicated to man affect the spirit of man, i.e. man's inner nature, in those aspects in which it is thought of as spirit.

(e) The soul, on the other hand, is the seat of the sensibilities. The idea of 'spirit' is more that of something objective and impersonal; that of 'soul' suggests what is reflexive and individual.

(d) Upon the whole, taking into account both what is stated in the beginning of Genesis and what appears elsewhere, the impression left on us is that Scripture adds nothing on this subject of Biblical Psychology to what is taught us by common sense. Besides the general doctrine that human nature is the work of God's hand, it gives special prominence to the fundamental dualism of man's nature. He is a compound of matter and spirit. The term 'matter' does not indeed occur in Scripture, but the particular matter of which man's body is composed is named dust. And man's spirit is drawn from a quite different quarter. Spirit or mind is so far from being the result of material organisation, that the organisation is represented as existing without spirit. And equally independent of the spirit is the material organisation in its origin. However popular the representation may be considered to be, and however much we may be inclined to regard the account written, so to speak, post-eventum, a description of man's creation conceived from the point of view of what man appears in life and in death, it is impossible to