B. Pronouns.

cannot be modified by plural pronouns and adjectives. This sort, that kind; these sorts, those kinds; not these sort and those kind.

Perhaps no single part of speech is so much misused as the pronoun. This is particularly true as regards case, and reference to antecedent.

1. You and I are talking, not You and me are talking, for both pronouns are subject and require the nominative case.

2. We boys are playing ball, not Us boys are playing ball, for the pronoun here is in apposition

with the subject and requires the same case. 3. It was I, If I were he, These are they, etc., not It was me, If I were him, These are them, for pronouns used as attribute complements must be in the nominative.

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4. We are inclined to misuse pronouns in noun clauses
and infinitives. We must remember that
the verb to be takes the same case after it
as before it; hence, "I know the man to be
him," for, "him" refers to man and
agrees with it, at the same time being sub-
ject of the infinitive; but "We know that
the officer is he," for here" he " is attribute
in a noun clause and must agree with offi-
cer," the subject. In "The officer was
known to be he," 66 he "
is likewise the

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attribute; and also in "I was certain of its being he," he" is the attribute ("I was certain that it was he ").

5. Again, we should say He is taller than I, not He

is taller than me, for here the nominative "I" is used because it is subject of a verb understood, "He is taller than I am." In the same way, They are better than we, not 66 than us." This construction is common when the comparative is used in a sentence. 6. Who is frequently confused with its objective form whom. If we are careful to note the syntax of the pronoun in each case, this confusion can be prevented. The boy whom you met is my brother, is literally, The boy you met whom, is my brother, and "whom " is object of "met." But in The girl who lost her book failed, "who " must be nominative, as subject of "lost." Whom did you speak to? is literally, To whom did you speak? or You did speak to whom? "Whom," wherever it stands in this kind of sentence, is object of the preposition "to" (or "from" or "by," Whom was it done by? Whom is your letter from?) and hence must be in the objective

case.

Who do you think was there? Here "who" is the subject of "was" and must therefore be in the nominative. In Who did you say he is? "who" is the attribute complement and must be in the same case as "he," - He is who, did you say? But Whom did you take him to be? is correct, because here. "whom " refers to "him" and is subject of the infinitive, — You did take him to be whom?

7. We unfortunately have no singular form of the

pronoun which can refer to both genders.
The Standard Dictionary suggests the word
thon but it has not been generally accepted.
His is commonly used for such reference
and custom makes it correct.
It is wrong
to use their; as, "Every man and woman
has his own troubles," not "their own
troubles." Every boy and girl in the class
should do his own work." His " used in
this way may be regarded as common gender.
If we want to be emphatic we may of course
use both forms of pronoun, Every boy and
girl in the class should do his and her own
work, but such a construction is too awk-
ward for common use.

8. Pronouns should be so used as clearly to indicate what they refer to in every case. If there is any doubt, the sentence must be reformed. He told his father that he could not go out until the carriage came, is very confusing because the antecedents of "he" and his are not clear. It should be, He said to his father, "you cannot go out until the carriage comes," or John told his father that the latter could not go out until the carriage came. The first correction is of course the better, because it makes a clearer sentence.

9. For the use of and which, and who, and that when there is no preceding relative construction, see Chapter III, page 81.

10. Sentences and compositions should keep faithfully to one person and form of pronoun. This is known as the sequence of pronouns.

One must suffer one's losses heroically, is better than One must suffer your (or his) losses heroically. This error is likely to occur only in the longer forms of composition, or in connection with the word one.

11. The rule for the reference of relative or personal pronouns is, that the pronoun refers to the last preceding noun or pronoun.

12. Who is used to refer to persons only (though there is abundant authority for its use in reference to animals, especially where they are the intimates of persons, as in Scott's novels). Which once referred to persons, but is used now to refer only to animals and things. That is used to refer to persons, animals, or things. That is also commonly used when the clause it introduces is restrictive; that is, necessary to the complete understanding of the sentence, "The book that I loaned you has been lost." But in "This park belongs to the city, which maintains and protects it," that would be wrong because the clause may be omitted and is therefore not restrictive.

13. The redundant pronoun, as in,

"John he goes

to school regularly," should be avoided. It occurs most frequently in oral composition and is probably caused by lack of fluency in speech.

C. Adjectives.

1. It must always be remembered that the comparative degree is used in referring to two objects or two groups of objects; the superlative,

to three or more.

The superlative must not be used for the comparative, -John has a suit almost like mine but I like mine the better, not I like mine best. So also must the double comparative and superlative be loveliest, more

carefully avoided, most loveliest,

harder, etc.

Awkward comparatives and superlatives, such as faithfuller for more faithful, or deceitfullest for most deceitful, should be avoided.

2. Either and neither cannot be used with plural verbs. When used as connectives or as adjectives they refer always to one of two, "Neither of us is right"; "Either

Frank or John is right."

3. The adjectives each, every, everybody, any, none, one, etc. (or the same words used as adjective pronouns), are usually felt to be singular and require singular verbs and reference, "Everybody is going," not "are going.'

4. Any or any one should not be used in referring to one of two. These words refer to one of

three or more.

5. This sort of apple, not This sort of an apple; This kind of desk, not This kind of a desk, are

correct, for the article cannot be used in a phrase modifying kind or sort.

6. After such verbs as be, appear, become, feel, taste, smell, look, sound, adjectives are used to describe the word preceding (usually the subject), "The music sounds sweet," not

sweetly"; "The apple tastes good," not