three feet in length, the pits or stacks are usually formed in this manner: A spot, adapted to the purpose, of from about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, of a conical form, is selected, and after being properly levelled, a large billet of wood split across at one end, and pointed at the other, is fixed in the centre of the area, with its pointed extremity in the earth, and two pieces of wood, inserted through the clefts of the other end, forming four right angles; against these cross-pieces, four other billets of wood are placed, one end on the ground, and the other leaning against the angles. A number of large and straight billets are afterwards laid on the ground, to form a floor, each being, as it were, the radius of the circular area; on this floor, a proper quantity of brush or small wood is strewed, to fill up the interstices, when the floor will be complete: and in order to keep the billets in the same position in which they were first arranged, pegs or stumps are driven into the ground, in the circumference of the circle, about a foot distant from one another; upon this floor a stage is built, with billets set upon one end, somewhat inclining towards the central billet, and on the tops of these another floor is laid, in a horizontal direction, but of shorter billets, as the whole is intended, when finished, to form a cone. The whole is then coated over with turf, and the surface generally plastered with a mixture of earth and charcoal dust.

3761. Previous to the operation of setting fire to the pile, the central billet in the upper stage is drawn out, and pieces of dry combustible wood substituted in its place, to which the fire is applied. Great attention is necessary during the process, in the proper management of the fire, and in immediately covering up the apertures through which the flame obtrudes itself, until the operation be concluded, which is generally effected in the space of two or three days according to circumstances. When the charcoal is thought to be sufficiently burnt, which is easily known from the appearance of the smoke, and the flames no longer issuing with impetuosity through the vents; all the apertures are to be closed up very carefully, with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust, which, by excluding all access of the external air, prevents the coal from being any further consumed, and the fire goes out of itself. In this condition it is suffered to remain, till the whole is sufficiently cooled; when the cover is removed, and the charcoal is taken away. If the whole process is skilfully managed, the coals will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of wood: some are said to have been so dexterous, as to char an arrow, without altering even the figure of the feather. (Encyc. Brit. vol. v. art. Charcoal.)

3762. The method of charring wood, for the making of gunpowder, according to an improved system, adopted not many years ago, is however a much more costly operation, though the expense attending it is amply compensated by the superior excellence of the article when manufactured. It is done in iron cylinders, and in so complete a manner, that every particle of the wood is charred. The oily or tarry matter is also preserved, and may, so far as the quantity goes, be made use of instead of foreign tar or pitch. This mode of charring wood for making gunpowder, is carried to the greatest perfection, near Petworth in Sussex, and there is a manufacture of a similar nature near Chester. (Gen. Rep. for Scotland, vol. ii. p. 342.)

SECT. IX. Of estimating the Value of Plantations and their Products, and of exposing them to Sale.

3763. The valuation of timber forms a distinct profession, and can only be acquired by continued observation and experience: like other valuations of property, it depends on a great variety of considerations, some of a general, but the greater part of a local nature. We have already offered some remarks on valuing young plantations, as a part of what may be called the inherent value of landed estates (3089,); and shall here confine ourselves to the valuation of saleable trees.

3764. In valuing saleable trees of any kind, their number per acre, or their total number by enumeration, being ascertained, and the kinds and sizes classed, then each class is to be estimated according to its worth as timber, fence-wood, fuel, bark, &c. "In a coppice wood which cannot readily be measured, the readiest method of counting the stools is, to cause two men to take a line, say about a hundred feet long, or more, and passing the line round as many of the stools as it will enclose, the one man standing, while the other moves round a new number of stools, and count always the stools betwixt the two lines, causing the one man to move, the one with the line, while the other stands still, and so on alternately. The valuator at the same time taking care to average every twenty stools as they go on, before losing sight of the counted stools. This way, too, is

a very speedy and sure method of counting the number of trees in any plantation. 3765. Or the stools of a coppice wood may be counted and averaged by two men going parallel to each other, and the person valuing going betwixt them; the two men putting up marks with moss, or pieces of white paper, on a branch of the stools; the one man always going back by the last laid marks, and the valuator always counting and averaging the stools betwixt the newly laid and the late made marks; counting and averaging the stools always as the men go on, taking only twenty, or even ten stools at a time. To

those who have been in the practice of doing this frequently, it will be found very easy, and will be done very speedily, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy. The proper method of learning to do this correctly is, when a person cuts an oak wood for the first time (or, even were the work repeated several times); he should then, in order to make himself perfectly acquainted with ascertaining the quantity of bark that a stool, or even the stump of a stool will produce, go before the peelers, and select a stool or stem; after having examined it narrowly, he supposes it to produce a certain quantity of bark, and marks this down in his memorandum book. He then causes a person to peel it by itself, dry it, and carefully tie it up and weigh it, and compare it with the weight he supposed it would produce, and he will at once see how far his calculation approaches the truth. A stem of oak, from a natural stool, suppose it to measure in girth two inches, by seven feet long, will contain two solid inches, and one-third of an inch, according to the measurement of Hoppus. This stem or shoot will produce two pounds two ounces of bark. Again, a stem or shoot of natural oak, measuring four inches in girth, by nine feet in length, will be found to contain one solid foot of wood, and will produce thirteen pounds and a half of bark." (Forester's Guide, 170.)

3766. When growing trees are valued, an allowance is made from their cubic contents for the bark. The rule given by Monteith is, "When the girth or circumference is any thing from twelve inches up to twenty-four inches, then deduct two inches; from twenty-four to thirty-six, three inches; from thirty-six to forty-eight, four inches; from forty-eight to seventy-two, five inches; and above seventy-two, six inches. These deductions," he says, "will be found to answer in almost all trees; unless in such as are very old, and have rough and corky barks, or barks covered with moss, when an extra allowance is to be made." (Forester's Guide, 180.)

trees

3767. In valuing measurable oak-trees, many persons proceed on the data that every cubic foot of timber will produce a stone (sixteen pounds) of bark. This, Monteith says, "is not always correct;" and he states the following facts from his own experience, with a view to assist beginners in ascertaining the quantity of bark from different "An oak-tree, about forty years old, measured down to four inches and a half as the side of the square, and weighing only the bark peeled off the timber that is measured, without including the bark of the spray, &c., every foot of measured timber will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. An oak-tree of eighty years old, weighing only the bark peeled off the measurable timber, as above, every foot will produce from ten to thirteen pounds of bark. Every foot of large birch timber, peeled as above, will produce fourteen pounds of bark. Every foot of mountain-ash, as above, will produce eleven pounds and a half of bark. Every foot of the willow, unless a very old one, will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. Every foot of larch fir, not exceeding thirty years old, will produce from seven to nine pounds of bark. The bark of trees, particularly the oak, is peeled off, every branch and shoot, down as small as an inch in circumference." (Forester's Guide, 189.)

3768. The price of timber, like every other article in general use, varies with the supply and demand; and is easily ascertained from the timber-merchants at the different sea-ports; as is that of bark, charcoal, and fire-wood from the tanners and coal-merchants.

3769. The modes of disposing of timber trees in common use are, selling the trees standing; by auction; by receiving written proposals; or by bargain and sale; 2d, cutting down the trees, and selling them in the rough, by either of these methods; 3d, converting the fallen trees; that is, cutting them up into the planks or pieces to which they are best adapted, or which are most eligible in the given situation. The first method seems the best, especially on a large scale, and also for the disposal of copsewood or osier crops.

СНАР. Х.

Of the Formation and Management of Orchards.

No

3770. The formation of orchards is to be considered among the permanent improvements of an estate; and should be kept in view in its first arrangement or laying out. temporary occupier could afford to plant an orchard without extraordinary encouragement from his landlord. Orchards in this respect may be ranked with timber plantations, and both subjects together agree in belonging equally to agriculture and gardening. Orchards have doubtless existed in Britain for many ages as appendages to wealthy religious establishments; but as objects of farming, or field culture, they do not appear to have been adopted till about the beginning of the seventeenth century (Lawson). They were then introduced by Lord Scudamore in Herefordshire, in which county, and

in such parts of those adjoining, as exhibit a red marly soil, are the best farm orchards in England. The chief produce of these orchards is cider and perry; but as these liquors are not in very general demand in this country, and are confessedly less wholesome and nourishing than malt liquors, their formation cannot be carried to any great extent. It seems desirable, however, that orchards of moderate size should be as generally introduced as possible; as the use of the fruit in pies, tarts, and sauces would add considerably to the comforts of the lower classes. Besides, there are some situations, as steep sheltered banks of good soil, which cannot be so profitably employed by any other branch of husbandry. The subject of orchards may be considered in regard to soil and situation, sorts of trees, planting, culture, and the manufacture or disposal of the produce.

SECT. I. Of the Soils and Situations most suitable for Orchards.

3771. The sites of all the best apple orchards, and all the chief cider districts, have been discovered by W. Smith to be on the same stratum of red marl which stretches across the island from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire. Fruit of no kind, indeed, can be raised with much success on a soil that does not contain in its composition a portion of calcareous matter: though apple trees will thrive well on any description of clay which has a dry bottom, and pears and plums on any dry bottomed soil whatever.

3772. The most desirable aspect is unquestionably a somewhat elevated and naturally sheltered declivity, open to the south and south-east; but as the author of The Herefordshire Survey remarks, orchards are now found “in every aspect, and on soil of every quality, and under every culture.' The most approved site, he says, is that which is open to the south-east, and sheltered in other points, but particularly in that opposite. Much however depends on the character of the winds of a country, for in some parts of the island, the west, and in others the east, or north wind, is the most injurious to vegetation.

3773. The soil which in Herefordshire is considered best adapted to most kinds of apples, is a deep and rich loam when under the culture of the plough; on this, the trees grow with the greatest luxuriance, and produce the richest fruit. Some trees however, the stire and the golden pippins in particular, form exceptions to this general rule, and florish most in hot shallow soils on a lime or sandstone. The best sort of pear-trees also prefer the rich loam, but inferior kinds will even florish where the soil will scarcely produce herbage. An orchard is generally raised with most success and at least expence in a hop yard, the ground under this culture being always well tilled and manured, as well as fenced against every kind of enemy.

3774. The soils and situations devoted to farm orchards in Scotland are steep clayey banks sheltered from the more violent and injurious winds; and in whatever part of that country such situations occur, they can scarcely be more profitably employed. Fruit trees of the apple, pear, and cherry kind, especially of the hardier and tall vigorous growing varieties, might be introduced in the hedgerows of dry and moderately sheltered grass-lands in most parts of the British isles. By thus rendering these fruits universal, there would be a considerable accession of enjoyment to the lower classes, and less temptation to break into gardens and orchards.

3775. The political situation most desirable for an orchard is of course near a market town; or near a ready conveyance to one; because though the making of cider affords a profit, yet the fruit sold for culinary, or table use, yields a much more considerable In The Gloucestershire Report it is stated that the fruit, which would fetch 87. 16s. unground, would only bring in cyder 31. 15s.

one.

SECT. II. Of the Sorts of Trees and Manner of Planting.

3776. The most generally useful fruit that can be grown in farm orchards is the apple ; next the pear; then the plum for tarts, or wine; and to these may be added the cherry, filbert, walnut, chestnut, and elder. In the cider countries where the climate is more certain than in some others, it is customary to plant but a few good sorts; and not to mix above one or two sorts together in making cider; in the northern districts, on the contrary, it is a maxim to plant a considerable number of different sorts, both of those which blossom early and late; because, should the blossom of one variety be destroyed by a frosty wind, that of another may escape. In cold districts, it is advisable to plant orchards in sheltered hollows, exposed to the sun, and to plant thick; but in the warmer southern counties, many descriptions of cider and perry fruits may be grown to perfection in the hedge-rows, or as cultured trees in permanent pastures. The fittest trees for such purposes are those which grow tall, with upright shoots, and which bear fruit of a small size; such as the Siberian pippin apple and squash teinton pear: such trees shade the hedges or pastures less than the spreading kinds, and their fruit being small is less likely to be blown down by high winds.

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3778. The most approved sorts of cider apples we have enumerated and partially described in the accompanying table (3777). It will be particularly observed that some of the sorts form much more handsome trees than others, and should therefore be preferred for hedge-rows, and indeed in all cases where the quality of the fruit is not objectionable. Some also have smaller-sized fruit than others, and these are to be preferred for situations exposed to much wind.

3779. The colors of good cider fruit are red and yellow; the color to be avoided is green, as affording a liquor of the harshest, and generally of the poorest quality. The pulp should be yellow, and the taste rich and somewhat astringent. Apples of a small size are always, if equal in quality, to be preferred to those of a larger, in order that the rind and kernel, which contain the aromatic part, may be the easier crushed with the pulp. 3780. The sorts of baking apples most suitable for orchards are the calvilles, of which there are several varieties, including the hawthorndean for early use; the pearmains for autumn use, and the russets for winter and spring. Many other sorts might be named, but an inspection of the fruit markets will prove that these are the best, and further details belong to books on gardening.

3781. The dessert apples fit for orchards are the rathripes or Margarets for earliest use; the jenneting, pomroy, summer pearmain, and Kentish for summer use; the golden, downton, and other pippins, especially the ribstone pippin, with the nonpareil and other small russets, for autumn, winter, and spring use. The following list is given by Nicol as including a fit collection both of kitchen and dessert apples for a private orchard; those marked thus being preferable>

Ribstone pippin, #oslin ditto, gogar ditto, * Kentish ditto, royal codling, Kentish ditto, * Carlisle ditto, * royal russet, Wheeler's ditto, royal pearmain, * loan's ditto (good), golden rennet, * Kentish ditto (good), grey leadington, scarlet ditto,

*

*

summer greening, winter ditto, * Yorkshire greening, *margill (very good), Margaret apple (good), white hawthorn dean, Norfolk beating (good), strawberry, purse-mouth (very good).

3782. The most approved sorts of cider pears are the following:

Barland, Pom. Her. t. 27., Forsyth, p. 145., fruit very austere, hardy upright tree.

Holmore, Pom. Her. t. 20., Forsyth, p. 144., upright tree.

Huffcap, Pom. Her. t. 24., Forsyth, p. 144., fruit austere, large, hardy trees.

Oldfield, Pom. Her. t. 11., Forsyth, p. 144., large tree.

Rough cap, Forsyth, p. 144., very austere, hardy free-growing tree.

Squash teinton, Pom. Her. t. 13., Forsyth, p. 144., fruit very austere, upright tree and great bearer. 3783. In choosing pears for planting in orchards, the description of the plant is a matter of very considerable importance, as pear trees attain a much greater age and size than apples. In our opinion the planting of pears in hedge-rows ought to be more encouraged than the planting of apples, as they are calculated, when dried, to be used in soups; or, when stewed green, to afford a light and agreeable nourishment; and perry is at least a more wholesome and exhilirating liquor to most constitutions than cider. 3784. The baking and dessert pears fit for orchards, according to Nicol, are the following:

3786. The following are excellent dessert plums for an orchard: *Green-gage, Orleans, * damask (black, good), white perdigron, blue ditto, blue gage, white magnum bonum, red

ditto or imperial, * drap d'or (yellow, good). Of these the greengage, orleans, and damask are much the best.

3787. The cultivation of the plum appears to us deserving of more encouragement than it generally meets with. Not only does the fruit make excellent pies and tarts, but it may be kept in large quantities, so as to be ready for that purpose at any period of the year. They also make a good wine, and with other fruits and ingredients form one of the best substitutes for port. The damson, bullace, and some other varieties, will grow and bear very high flavored fruit in hedges where the soil is dry below and not too thin. The fruit of the sloe is, for wine making, superior to that of the plum, and nearly as good for

tarts.

3788. The cherry is of more limited culture than any of the foregoing fruits, because chiefly used for eating, and not being of a nature to keep. Near large towns they may be cultivated to a certain extent. In Kent and Hertfordshire are the cherry orchards which afford the chief supplies for the London market. The sorts are chiefly the caroon, small black or Kentish, the May-duke, and the morella; but Holman's duke, the black heart, and the large gean, will do well in orchards.

3789. The walnut and Spanish chestnut may be advantageously planted on the outskirts of orchards to shelter them, and a few of them in hedge-rows where the climate is likely to ripen their fruit. The chestnut can hardly be considered as ripening north of Lon