2457. The rope-twisting machine (fig. 271.), is a small wheel, the prolonged axle or spindle of which terminates in a hook, on which the rope is commenced. It is commonly fixed to a portable stand; but is sometimes attached to a threshing-machine. It is used for twisting ropes of straw, hay, or rushes for tying on the thatch of ricks and other similar purposes. It is also used to form very thick ropes for forming straw drains.

2458. The draught-machine is a contrivance invented for the purpose of ascertaining the force or power of draught, in drawing ploughs, &c.

2459. More's draught-machine is a spring coiled within a cylindrical case, having a dial-plate marked with numbers like

271

that of a clock, and so contrived that a hand moves with the motion of the spring, and points to the numbers in proportion as the force is exerted: for instance, when the draught equals one cwt. over a pulley, the hand points to fig. 1; when the draught is equal to two cwt. it points to fig. 2, and so on. Till this very useful machine was invented, it was exceedingly difficult to compare the draught of different ploughs, as there was no rule to judge by, but the exertions of the horses as apparent to the eye; a very undecisive mode of ascertaining their force.

2460. Braby's draught-machine (fig. 272.), consists of two strong steel plates, joined at the ends, and forming a spheroidal opening between them. In using it, one end (a) is hooked on the muzzle of the plough or other implement, and to the other (b) the draught trees are attached. An indicator (c) points out the power applied in cwts.

2461. The weighing-cage (fig. 273.), is a contrivance made in the form of a sort

of open box or cage, by which any small animal, as a pig, sheep, calf, &c. may be very easily and expeditiously weighed, and with sufficient accuracy for the farmer's purpose. It is constructed on the principle of the common steel-yard, with a strong wooden frame and steel centres, in which the pivots of the lever are hung. And upon the short side of the lever is suspended a coop, surrounded by strong net-work, in which the animal intended to be weighed is placed; the point of suspension is connected with the coop by means of two curved iron rods, which at the same time form the head of it. A common scale being hung on the longer side of the lever.

2462. The weighing-machine is a contrivance of the steel-yard kind, for the purpose of weighing cattle and other animals alive. A machine of this sort is of importance in the grazing and fattening systems where they are carried to any considerable extent, in ascertaining the progress made by the animals, and shewing how they pay for the use of any particular kind of food, or what power it has in promoting the fattening process.

2463. Weir's machine for weighing live bullocks, is by far the simplest and most econo

mical of these machines.

2464. The weighing-machine for sacks is a convenient piece of barn-furniture on the steel-yard principle.

2465. The common steel-yard will often be found useful for weighing corn or roots in large quantities; for smaller quantities, there are a variety of ingenious contrivances, among the simplest and easiest managed of which are those of Medhurst and Marriot. 2466. The chaff-cutter is used for cutting hay or straw into fragments not larger than chaff to facilitate its consumption by cattle. There are numerous forms; one of the most common is that of M'Dougal (fig. 274.), which is so formed, that in case of its being accidentally broken, it may be repaired by any common mechanic. The pressure of the straw is also capable of being regulated with great facility. But the great im

provement is in having applied a spiral groove, instead of the endless screw, by which friction is much diminished, and the lever may rise to any height, without putting the machine out of work.

2467. The bruising-machine (fig. 275.), is contrived for the purpose of bruising different sorts of grain, pulse, &c. as well as grinding malt. It is a simple implement, constructed with two iron rollers, of different diameters, turned true on their axles or spindles, each roller having a cog or tooth-wheel. A roller with grooves is fixed under the hopper, to receive the grain from the hopper, and lay it on the two rollers. To one of the rollers is fixed a fly-wheel. The machine is made to be worked by hand, or any other power. The upper wood frame is made to slide, and is regulated by a screw, according to the size of the grain, and will bruise it more or less, as may be required.

2468. Of hand-drilling-machines, there are a great many different kinds of various degrees of merit. The sort to be recommended in any particular case will depend on the texture of the soil; one which would answer well in a soft soil or sand might not succeed in a stoney or loamy soil. As the fashions of drills are continually changing, we advise intending purchasers to describe their soil and kind of culture, as whether

275

raised or flat-drilling, &c. to a respectable implement-maker; in the mean time we submit a few of the established forms.

276

2469. The bean or potatoe dibblingmachine (fig. 276.), consists of a single wheel, set with dibber points, and which may be placed wider or closer at pleasure. It is pushed along by one man, and succeeds on friable soils, but cannot be depended on when the surface is rough or tenacious. Potatoe sets to be planted after this machine should be cut with the improved scoop (2418.). 2470. The common drill-barrow (fig. 277.), consists of a frame and wheel, somewhat

277

similar to that of a common barrow, with a hopper attached to contain the seed. It is used for the purpose of sowing horse-beans, turnips, and such like seeds, upon small ridges. In using it, the laborer for the most part wheels it before him, the seed being afterwards covered by means of a

2471. The bean-drill is a clumsy implement, better substituted by a box and wheel, to attach between the handles of any common plough, and thus deposit the seed after the furrow. (See Bean.)

2472. The turnip barrow-drill sows a single row at a time; but is of difficult management on the tops of ridges; for this purpose, it is desirable to have two wheels, one to go on each side of the ridge. A greatly improved variety of this machine, in use in Scotland (fig. 278.), has a barrel

of water (a) attached, which, by means of a tube, is dropped among the seed in the tract

H

279

made by the coulter. This very useful appendage may be added to any drill-machine, whether worked by manual or animal labor.

2473. The hand turnip-roller (fig. 279.), is used for rolling raised drills or ridges previously to and after sowing turnip-seed by a hand-drill. The use of such a roller leaves the ridges in a much better form for receiving the seed than a common cylindrical roller, and after the seed is sown, when this roller is again used, the surface is left in the fittest state for retaining moisture, and for commencing the hoeing and thinning operations.

2474. The root-breaker or bruiser (fig. 280.), is composed of two widely fluted rollers, placed under a hopper, turned by two men. It is used for breaking or bruising potatoes, turnips, carrots, or other raw roots, into small or moderate sized pieces, before giving them to cattle or horses. The same implement may be set so close by means of two screws, as to serve for a whin-bruiser, or for breaking beans, or corn of any kind.

2475. Other machines, for particular departments, will be noticed in their proper places; and some will be wanted which are not peculiar to agriculture, such as rat-traps (figs. 281. and 282.), mouse and mole-traps (fig. 283.) a fowling-piece for shooting birds, scares for deterring birds, and similar contrivances.

2476. The essential hand-machines are the ladder, wheel, and hand-barrows, winnowing-machine, hand-threshing machine, chaff-cutter, and turnip barrow-drill.

СНАР. ІІ.

Of Agricultural Implements and Machines drawn by Beasts of Labor.

2477. The fundamental implements of agriculture are the plough, the harrow, and the cart these are common to every country in the slightest degree civilized; sufficiently

rude in construction in most countries, and only very lately brought to a high degree of perfection in Britain. Dr. Anderson (Recreations in Agriculture, &c.), writing in 1802, observes, "that there are no sorts of implements that admit of greater improvement than those of husbandry, on the principle of diminishing weight without in any degree abating their strength." Since that very recent period, great improvements have taken place in almost every agricultural implement, from the plough to the threshing machine, and though these have not yet found their way into general use, especially in England, they may be procured at the public manufactories of the capitals of the three kingdoms with no trouble. It is incredible what benefits would result to agriculture if proper ploughs and threshing machines were generally adopted; and if the scuffler or cultivator were applied in suitable soils, and under proper circumstances, not to mention one and two horse carts, improved harrows, and the best winnowing machines. But the ignorance and antipathy to innovation of the majority of farmers in almost every country, the backwardness of laborers to learn new practices, and the expense of the implements, are drawbacks which necessarily require time to overcome. It may also be observed, that in the progress of improvement, many innovations which have been made, have turned out of no account, or even worse than useless; and this being observed by the sagacious countryman, confirms him in his rooted aversion to novelty and change. — In our selection, we shall pass over a great variety of forms, the knowledge of which we consider of no use, unless it were to guard against them, and shall chiefly confine ourselves to such as are in use at the present time by the best farmers of the best cultivated districts. These we shall arrange as tillage implements, sowing and planting implements, reaping machines, threshing machines, and machines of deportation.

SECT. I. Of Tillage Implements and Machines.

2478. The tillage implements of agriculture comprise ploughs with and without wheels, and pronged implements of various descriptions, as grubbers, cultivators, harrows, rollers, &c. We shall take them in the order of swing ploughs, wheel ploughs, pronged implements, harrows, and rollers, &c.

SUBSECT. 1. Of Swing Ploughs, or such as are constructed without Wheels.

2479. The plough is the first implement in agriculture, and hence the importance of selecting the most improved form. As ploughing, however, like many other operations in practical husbandry, must often vary in the manner of its being performed, it is evident, that no one particular sort of plough can be superior to all others, in every season, and under every variety of soil or inclination of surface. Different soils, situations, and uses, will of course require different kinds of ploughs, though there are undoubtedly some that are capable of a much more general application than others.

2480. Ploughs are of two kinds; those fitted up with wheels, and called wheel ploughs, and those without wheels, called swing ploughs. The latter are the lightest of draught, but require an experienced and attentive ploughman to use them; the former work with greater steadiness, and require much less skill in the manager: some sorts, indeed, do not require holding at all, excepting at entering in, and turning on and off the work at the ends of the ridges. On the whole, taking ploughmen as they are, and ploughs as they are generally constructed, it will be found that a district ploughed with wheel ploughs, will show greater neatness of work than one ploughed with swing ploughs. But on the other hand, taking a district where the improved form of swing ploughs is generally adopted, the ploughmen will be found superior workmen, and the work performed in a better manner, and with less expense of labor than in the case of wheel ploughs. Northumberland in this respect may be compared with Warwickshire. In attempting to introduce the improved swing plough into any district, it will be found a very useful mode to have wheels applied to it in a temporary manner, so as they may be removed altogether when the operator becomes expert, or in the most favorable soils.

2481. In the construction of ploughs, whatever be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to be attended to; such as the giving the throat and breast, or that part which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground, that sort of long, narrow, clean, tapering, sharpened form that affords the least resistance in passing through the land; and to the mould-board, that kind of hollowed-out and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to contribute greatly to the perfect turn. ing over of the furrow-slice., The beam and muzzle should likewise be so contrived, as that the moving power, or team, may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. This is particularly necessary where a number of animals are employed together, in order that the draught of the whole may coincide.

2482. The construction of an improved swing plough is thus given mathematically by Bailey of Chillingham, in his Essay on the Construction of the Plough on Mathematical

Principles, 1795. It had been previously aimed at by Small of Berwickshire, and subse quently by Vetch of Inchbonney, near Jedburgh. (Highland Soc. Trans. vol. iv. p. 243.) 2483. Land, when properly ploughed, Bailey observes, must be removed from a horizontal position, and twisted over to a certain angle, so that it may be left in that inclining state, one furrow leaning upon another, till the whole field be completely ploughed. The depth and width of the furrows which is most approved of by farmers, and commonly to be met with in the best ploughed fields, are in the proportion of two to three; or, if the furrow be two deep, it must be three wide, and left at an angle of 45 to 46 degrees.

2484 Various forms have been given to the different parts of the plough, by ingenious persons, according to their different fancies, in order to diminish the weight of the draught, and to turn over the furrow, and leave it in its proper position, without tearing or breaking it.

2485. To have the line of draught at right angles to the horse's shoulders, is of great importance in the formation of a plough, a circumstance of which the greatest part of the plough-makers are totally ignorant, although it is well known to every one that has the least knowledge of mechanics. If we take the angle that the horse's shoulders make with a perpendicular from the horizon, and continue another line at right angles to it, or parallel to the draught chain; the length of this line from the horse's shoulders to where it meets or crosses the coulter, at half the depth of the furrow, will be thirteen feet two inches for ordinary sized horses.

2486. Length of beam. If the plough be properly made, the line of draught should pass through the middle hole of the plough bridle at the point of the beam. This requires the beam to be seven feet long, to give it a proper height at the bridle.

2487. Left side plane. That part of the plough next the solid land, should be made a perfect plane, and run parallel to the line of draught; whereas some of the common ploughs are completely twisted in that part, and deviate more than two inches from the line of draught; this throws the plough to the left, and causes the hinder part of the mould-board to press hard against the furrow, and crush and break it, besides increasing the labor of the cattle.

2488. The position of the coulter must not deviate much from an angle of 45 degrees; for, if we make it more obliqué, it causes the plough to choke up with stubble and grass roots, by throwing them up against the beam; and, if less oblique, it is apt to drive the stones or other obstacles before it, and make it heavier to draw.

2489. Of swing ploughs, the best, is the implement known in England as the Scotch plough. It is almost the only plough used in Scotland, and throughout a considerable part of England; it is drawn with less power than wheel ploughs, the friction not being so great; and it probably admits of greater variations in regard to the breadth and depth of the furrow-slice. It is usually drawn by two horses abreast in common tillage; but for ploughing between the rows of the drill culture, a smaller one drawn by one horse, is commonly employed. A plough of this kind, having a mould-board on each side, is also used both in forming narrow ridges for turnips and potatoes, and in laying up the earth to the roots of the plants, after the intervals have been cleaned and pulverised by the horse and hand-hoe. This plough is sometimes made in such a manner, that the mould-board may be shifted from one side to the other when working on hilly grounds; by which means the furrows are all laid in the same direction; - a mode of construction as old as the days of Fitzherbert, who wrote before the middle of the sixteenth century. This is called a turn-wrest plough.

2490. Swing-ploughs, similar to the Scotch plough, have been long known in England. In Blythe's Improver Improved (edit. 1652), we have engravings of several ploughs; and what he calls the "plain plough," does not seem to differ much in its principal parts from the one now in use. Amos, in an Essay on Agricultural Machines, says, that a person named Lummis (whom he is mistaken in calling a Scotchman, see Maxwell's Practical Husbandman, p. 191.) “ first attempted its construction upon mathematical principles, which he learned in Holland; but having obtained a patent for the making and vending of this plough, he withheld the knowledge of these principles from the public. However, one Pashley, plough-wright to Sir Charles Turner of Kirkleathem, having a knowledge of those principles, constructed upon them a vast number of ploughs. Afterwards his son established a manufactory for the making of them at Rotherham. Hence they obtained the name of the Rotherham plough; but in Scotland they were called the Dutch or patent plough.' "At length the Americans, having obtained a knowledge of those principles, either from Britain or Holland, claimed the priority of the invention; in consequence of which, President Jefferson, of the United States, presented the principles for the construction of a mould-board, first to the Institute of France, and next to the Board of Agriculture in England, as a wonderful discovery in mathematics." (Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 437.) According to another writer, the Rotherham plough was first constructed in Yorkshire, in 1720, about ten years before Lummis's improvements. (Survey of the West Riding of Yorkshire. Sup. Encyc. Brit. art. Agr.)

2491. The present improved swing plough (fig. 111., p. 127.), was little known in Scotland till about the year 1764, when Small's method of constructing it began to excite attention. (Small's Treatise on Ploughs and Wheel Carriages, 1784; and Lord Kaimes's Gentleman Farmer.) This ingenious mechanic formed the mould-board upon distinct and intelligible principles, and afterwards made it of cast-iron. His appendage of a chain has been since laid aside. It has been disputed, whether he took the Rotherham, or the old Scotch plough for the basis of his improvements. The swing plough has been since varied a little, in some parts of Scotland, from Small's form, for the purpose of adapting