contrive accounts, and is afraid to trust another, being conscious of fraud." (Col. lib. i. cap. 8.) There are some other things mentioned by this author, with respect to the bailiff, that are very proper, and shew particularly the attention of the Romans. "He ought not," says he, "to trade upon his own account, nor employ his master's money in purchasing cattle or any other goods; for this trading takes off his attention, and prevents him from keeping square accounts with his master. But when he is required to settle them, he shows his goods in the place of money. This, above all, he should be careful of, not to think he knows any thing he does not know; and always be ready to learn what he is ignorant of. For as it is of great advantage to do a thing well, so it is most hurtful to have it ill done. This one thing holds true in all rustic work, to do but once what the manner of culture requires; because, when imprudence or negligence in working is to be set to rights, the time for the work is already wasted; nor are the effects of the amendment such as to make up the lost labour, and balance the advantages that might have been gained by improving the season that is past." (Col. lib. i. cap. 8.) 87. The qualities of the other villa servants are represented by the same author in this manner: "The careful and industrious," says he, "should be appointed masters of the works; these qualities are more necessary for this business than stature, or strength of body; for this service requires diligent care and art." Of the ploughman he says, 88. In the ploughman, though a degree of genius is necessary, yet it is not enough. "There should be joined to it a harshness of voice and manner, to terrify the cattle: but he should temper strength with clemency; because he ought to be more terrible than cruel, that so the oxen may obey his commands, and continue the longer at their work, not being spent, at the same time, both with the severity of labour and stripes. But what the offices of masters of works and of ploughmen are, I shall mention in their proper places. It is sufficient at present to observe, that tallness and strength are of great use in the one, and of very little in the other; for we should make, as I have said, the tallest man a ploughman, both for the reason I have already mentioned, and because there is no rustic work by which a tall man is less fatigued than by ploughing, because, when employed in this, walking almost upright, he may lean upon the handle of the plough." Of the common laborer he says, "The common laborer may be of any size, provided he is able to endure fatigue." And of the vine-dresser," Vineyards do not require such tall men, provided they are thick and brawny; for this constitution of body is most proper for digging, pruning, and the other culture necessary for them. In this work diligence is less necessary than in the other works of husbandry; because the vine-dresser ought to perform his work in company and under the eye of a director. Commonly wicked men are of a quicker genius, which this kind of work requires; and, as it requires not only a stout servant, but one of an active contrivance, vineyards are commonly cultivated by slaves in chains." (Col. lib. i. cap. 9.) Thus we see, that, among the Romans, laborers were appointed to the different works of husbandry, according to their strength, size, and genius. 89. With respect to the wages of agricultural labor among the Romans, very little benefit can be derived from knowing the absolute sum of money paid for any article, unless it can be compared with the price of other commodities. The price of a slave in Cato's time, was about 50%.; in the time of Columella it had risen to 60%.; or to the price of eight acres of good land. A good vine-dresser cost 66l. 13s. 4d. and a good ploughman or laborer not less than 60l. The interest of money at this time was 67. per cent. per annum; therefore, in stating the expence of farm labor, a slave must be rated at not less than 127. per cent. as being a perishable commodity; so that one who cost 60l. would fall to be charged at the rate of 77. 4s. per annum, besides his maintenance and clothing. This may give some idea of the wages that would be paid to a free servant who hired himself by the year; of which, however, there appears to have been no great number, their wages not being stated. Two reflections which arise from these statements may be mentioned incidentally: the first, that a much greater proportion of capital was required to carry on Roman agriculture, than in Britain or any free country where the capital of labor was not purchased, but only the interest paid as the labor is performed; and, secondly, that our farm servants, who in some places are paid from 157. to 20l. per annum, besides food and lodging, would, if they were to be purchased, cost the farmer from 150l. to 2001. each. A farmer, therefore, who occupied three hundred acres, and employed a capital of 3000l. and six servants, would require an addition to his capital of at least one third, if he were obliged to purchase those servants. 90. All the servants were maintained and clothed by the farmer or proprietor; and as may be supposed, it was the interest of the latter that this should be done in a good and sufficient manner. Columella mentions what he calls an old maxim, concerning the bailiff: "That he should not eat but in the sight of all the servants, nor of any other thing but what was given for the rest." He mentions the reason of this: "For thus,' says he, "shall he take care that both the bread be well baked, and the other things prepared in a wholesome manner. (Col. lib. i. cap. 8.) The same author mentions the treatment that masters ought to give their slaves: "So much the more attentive," says he, "ought the master to be in his inquiry concerning this kind of servants, that they may not be injured in their clothes and other things afforded them, inasmuch as they are subject to many, such as bailiffs, masters of works, and gaolers; and the more they are liable to receive injuries, and the more they are hurt through cruelty or avarice, the more they are to be feared. Therefore a diligent master ought to inquire, both at themselves, and likewise the free servants in whom he may put greater confidence, whether they receive the full of what is allowed them; he himself ought likewise to try, by tasting the goodness of the bread and drink, and examining their clothes, mittens, and shoes." (Cal. lib. i. cap. 8.) In another place, he says, "That the bailiff should have the family dressed and clothed rather usefully than nicely, and carefully fortified against the wind, cold, and rain; all which they will be secured from, by sleeved leathern coats, old centones (thick stuff used as bed-quilts) for defending their heads; or cloaks with hoods. If the laborers are clothed with these, no day is so stormy as to prevent them from working without doors." (Col. lib. i. cap. 8.) Cato likewise makes particular mention of the clothes of the slaves: "The vestments of the family," says he, "a coat and a gown three and a half feet long should be given once in two years; whenever you give a coat or a gown, first receive the old one; of these make centones. Good shoes should be given once in two years." (Cat. cap. 59.) 9 Cato informs us what quality of bread and wine, and what other kinds of meat were given to laborers. Of bread, he says, each laborer was allowed at the rate of three pounds avoirdupois, or of three pounds twelve ounces avoirdupois in the day, according to the severity of their labor. "During the winter, says he, "the bailiff should have four modii of wheat each month, and during the summer four mod and a half; and the housekeeper, or the bailiff's wife, and the shepherd, should have three. During the winter, the slaves should have four pounds of bread each in the day; from the time that they begin to dig the vineyard, to the ripening of the figs, they should have five pounds each; after which they should return again to four. " (Cat. cap. 56. To this bread, there was a daily allowance of wine; daning the three months that immediately followed the vintage, the servants drank a weak kind of wine called ore. The manner in which this liquor was made, is described both by Pliny and Columella; and from the description given by them, it may well be supposed to be as good as the small beer given to servants in Britain. (Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xiv. cap. 10.) It does not appear that the Roman slaves were much restricted in the quantity; Cato mentions no measure; he only says, that they have this to drink for three months after the vintage; he proceeds in this manner: "In the fourth month, each should get an of wine in the day, which is at the rate of two and a half congi in the month; in the fifth, Axth, seventh, and eighth months, each a sextary in the day, which is tive congië in the month; in the inth, tenth, and eleventh, each three heminæ in the day, which is an amphora in the month. More than this, at the saturnalia and compitalia, to each man was given a congius. The quantity of wine for each man in the year is eight quadrantals; however, as addition must be made according to the work in which the slaves are employed, it is not too much for each of them to drink ten quadrantals in the year.' This allowance of wine, it must be acknowledged, was not inconsiderable, being at least seventy-four galions in the year, or at an average 1.62 parts of a pint in the day. 92. Besides bread and wine, the slaves got what was called pulmentarium, which answers to what in some parts of the country is called kitchen dripping or fat. (Plin. Na. Hist. lib. xviii. cap. 8.) For this purpose Cato recommends the laying up as many fallen olives as can be gathered; afterwards the early olives from which the smallest quantity of oil is expected; at the same time observing that these must be given sparingly, that they may last the longer. When the olives are finished, he desires salt fish and vinegar to be given, and besides, to each man a sextarius of oil in the month, and a modius of salt in the year. (Cat. cap. 18.) Columella, for this purpose, directs apples, pears, and figs, to be laid up: he adds, if there is a great quantity of these, the rustics are secured in no small part of their meat during the winter, for they serve for dripping or fat. (Col. lib. xii. cap. 14.) SUBSECT. 3. Of the Beasts of Labor used by the Romans. The laboring cattle used by the Romans, as well as all the ancient nations, were chiefly the ox, the ass sometimes, the mule for burdens, and but very rarely the horse. The horse, however, was reared; but almost exclusively for the saddle, the chace, or The respect for the ox which existed among the Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks, was continued among the Romans, so much so that Varro, and after him Columella and Play, adduces an instance of a man having been indicted and condemned for killing one to please a boy who longed for a dish of tripe. for war. 94. The breeding, breaking, feeding, and working of the ox is very particularly treated of by the ancient authors. 5. Bails, says Palladius, “ should be tall, with huge members, of a middle age, rather young as old, of 3 sera countenance, small horns, a brawny and vast neck, and a confined belly." (Pal. lib. iv. The cores, Columella "most approves of, are of a tall make, long, with very large belly, very broad forehead, eyes black and open, horns graceful, smooth and black, hairy ears, strait jaws, very large dewlap and tail, and moderate hoofs and legs." (Col. lib. vi. cap. 21.) 97. Breeders both of horses and cows, Virgil observes, should attend principally to the make of the female. "If any one," says he, "fond of the prize at the olympic games, breeds horses; or if any one breeds stout bullocks for the plough, he chiefly attends to the make of the mother, who ought to be large in all her parts.' Georg. iii. v. 49.) The same maxim is attended to by the best breeders of the present day; and the reasons have been most satisfactorily and scientifically given by Cline. (Commun. to Board of Ag. kc. vol. iv. ) For breaking and training cattle to the yoke, Varro and Columella give very partinular directions. "To break bullocks," says Varro, "put their necks between forked stakes; set up one for each bullock, and give them meat from the hand; they will betetractable in a few days: then in order that by degrees they may become accustomed to the yoke, let an unbroken one be joined with a veteran, whom he will imitate; then let them go upon even ground without a plough; then yoked to a light plough in a sandy soil. That they may be trained for carriages, they should first be put to empty carts, and driven, if convenient, through a village or town; the habit of hearing frequent noise, and seeing a variety of objects, will soon make them fit for use." (Var. lib. i. cap. 20.) 99. Training commences with the calve state; and "calves," says Virgil, "which you intend for country labor, should be instructed while their youthful minds are tractable, and their age manageable: first bind round their necks wide wreaths of tender twigs; then, when their free necks have been accustomed to servitude, put real collars upon them; join bullocks of equal strength, and make them step together; at first let them frequently be employed in drawing along the ground wheels without any carriage upon them, so that they may print their steps only upon the top of the dust; afterwards let the beechen axle groan under the heavy load, and the pole draw the wheels joined to the weighty carriage." (Georg. iii. v. 163.) 100. The food of laboring oxen was the mast or nuts of the beech or sweet chestnut, grape stones, and husks after being pressed, hay, wheat and barley straw, bean, vetch, and lupine chaff, all parts of corn and pulse, grass, green forage, and leaves. The leaves used were those of the holm oak, ivy, elm (considered the best), the vine, the poplar, &c. The poplar leaves were mixed with the elm leaves to make them hold out, and when there was no elm leaves, then oak and fig leaves were used. (Cat. cap. 54.) The food preferred before all others by Columella, is good pasturage in summer, and hay and corn in winter, but he says the food and manner of feeding, differ in different countries. 101. Oren were worked in pairs abreast, both in the cart and plough, and stood in the stables also in pairs, in bubilia or stalls formed on purpose. They were carefully matched, in order that the stronger might not wear out the weaker. They were yoked either by the horn or neck; but the latter mode was greatly preferred. 102. Yoking by the horns, Columella observes, "is condemned by almost all who have written on husbandry; because cattle can exert more strength from the neck and breast, than the horns; as in the one way, they press with the whole weight and bulk of their bodies; whereas in the other way, they are tormented with having their heads drawn back and turned up, and with difficulty stir the surface of the earth with a light plough." (Col. lib. ii, cap. 11. 22.) 103. Oxen, when in the plough, were not allowed to go a great way without turning; one hundred and twenty feet was the length fixed upon, and further than this, it was thought improper for them to pull hard without stopping. The Reverend A. Dickson thinks it probable, that "the breaks or plats for the different kinds of corn and pulse were laid out nearly of this length and breadth" (Husb. of the Anc. ii. 452.); and there appears grounds for concluding that the case was the same among the Jews and Greeks. It was thought proper that oxen in ploughing should be allowed to stop a little at the turning, and when they stopped, that the ploughman should put the yoke a little forward, that so their necks might cool. "Unless their necks are carefully and regularly cooled," says Columella, "they will soon become inflamed, and swellings and ulcers will arise." The same author directs, that "the ploughman when he has unyoked his oxen, must rub them after they are tied up, press their backs with his hands, pull up their hides, and not suffer them to stick to their bodies; for this is a disease that is very destructive to working cattle." No food must be given them till they have ceased from sweating and high breathing, and then by degrees, in portions as eaten; and afterwards they are to be led to the water, and encouraged by whistling." (Col. lib. ii. cap. 3.) 104. In purchasing working oxen, Varro directs to choose such as have “spacious horns, rather black than otherwise, a broad forehead, wide nostrils, a broad chest, and thick dewlap." (Lib. i. cap. 20.) All the Roman authors agree that the best color of the body is red or dark brown; that the black are hardier, but not so valuable: that the hair should be short and thick, and the whole skin very soft to the touch; the body in general very long and deep, or, as Columella and Palladius express it, compact and square. The particular parts they also describe at length in terms such as would for the most part be approved by experienced breeders of cattle; making due allowance for the difference between choice for working, and choice for fatting. farmers to rear at home what oxen they want; as disagree with the change of soil and climate. They all concur in recommending those brought from a distance often 105. The ass was the animal next in general use. Varro says, they were chiefly used to carry burdens, or for the mill; or for ploughing where the land is light, and that they were most common in the south of Italy, especially in Campania. (Lib. ii. cap. 6.) He gives directions for breeding and rearing of them: and states that the female should not be allowed to work when in an advanced state of impregnation; but that the male does not improve by indulgence in labor. The foal is removed from the dam a year after being foaled, and broke for labor in the third year. 106. Mules, Columella says, " are very proper both for the road and the plough, provided they are not too dear, and the stiff lands do not require the strength of the ox."" Mules and hinni." Varro observes, "are of two kinds; the first being the offspring of a mare and an ass, and the second of a horse and an ass. A hinnus is less than an ass in the body, com monly of a brighter color; his ears, main, and tail like those of the horse. The mule is larger than the ass, but has more of the character of that animal in its parts than the hinaus. To breed mules, a young jack ass is put under a mare when he is foaled, and being reared with her is admitted to her the third year; nor does he despise the mare on account of former habits. If you admit him younger he soon gets old, and his offspring is less valuable. Persons who have not an ass which they have brought up under a mare, and who wish to have an ass for admission, choose the largest and the handsomest they can find, from a good breed." (Varro, lib. ii. cap. 8.) Mules are fed like the ass, on spray, leaves, herbage, hay, chaff, and corn. 107. The horse was scarcely, if at all, used in Roman agriculture, but was reared for the saddle, and the army, by some farmers. Varro and Columella are particular in their direc tions as to the choice of mares, and breeding and rearing their young; but as these contain nothing very remarkable, we shall pass over most of them. "When a horse," says Varro," is admitted to a mare and is fastidious, they pound a squill with water to the consistence of honey, they rub the mare with it; they then apply it to the nostrils of the borse." (Lib. ii. cap. 7.) The same author relates a case after Aristotle, and which is also noticed by Pliny, of "a horse which could not be induced to cover his dam, and when the groom had brought him with his head covered, and compelled him to do it, when he uncovered the horse's eyes, he attacked and killed him." (Id.) He recommends large horses for admission, which is contrary to modern practice. The signs of future merit in a colt are a small head, well formed limbs, and contending with other colts or horses for superiority in running, or any other thing. 108. The dog is a valuable animal in every unenclosed country, and was kept by the Roman farmers for its use in assisting the shepherd, and also for watching. Varro mentions two kinds; one for hunting, which belongs to fierce and savage beasts; and one for the shepherd, and the watch box. The latter are not to be bought from hunters or butchers, because these are either lazy, or will follow a stag rather than a sheep. The best color is white, because it is most discernible in the dark. They must be fed in the kitchen with bread and milk; or broth with bruised bones, but never with animal food, and never allowed to suffer from hunger, lest they attack the flock. That they may not be wounded by other beasts, they wear a collar made of strong leather set with nails, the inward extremity of which is covered with soft leather, and that the hardness of the iron may not hurt their necks. If a wolf or any other beast is wounded by these, it makes other dogs that have not the collar remain secure. (Var. lib. ii. cap. 9.) SUBSECT. 4. Of the Agricultural Implements of the Romans. 109. The Romans used a great many instruments in their culture and farm management; but their particular forms and uses are so imperfectly described, that very little is known concerning them. 110. The plough, the most important instrument in agriculture, is mentioned by Cato as of two kinds, one for strong, and the other for light soils. Varro mentions one with two mould boards, with which, he says, "when they plough after sowing the seed, they are said to ridge." Pliny mentions a plough with one mould board for the same purpose, and others with a coulter, of which, he says, there are many kinds. It is probable indeed, as the Rev. A. Dickson has remarked, that the ancients had many different kinds of ploughs, though, perhaps, not so scientifically constructed as those of modern times. "They had ploughs," he says, "with mould boards, and without mould boards; with and without coulters; with and without wheels; with broad and narrow pointed shares; and with shares not only with sharp sides and points, but also with high raised cutting tops." (Husb. of the 4. II. 388.) But amidst all this variety of ploughs, no one has been able to depict the simplest form of that implement in use among the Romans. Professor John Martyn, in his notes to Virgil's Georgics, gives a figure of a modern Italian plough to illustrate Virgil's description. Rosier says, the Roman plough was the same as is still used in the south of France (fig. 11.). Some authors have made fanciful representations of it of the 11 radest construction; others have exhibited more refined pieces of mechanism, but most improbable as portraits. 111. From the different parts of the plough mentioned by the Roman authors, a figure has been imagined and described by the author of the Husbandry of the Ancients, which from his practical knowledge of agriculture, and considerable classical learning, it is to be regretted he did not live to see delineated. A plough in use from time immemorial in Valentia, (fig. 12.) is supposed to come the nearest to the common Roman imple ment. In it we have the buris or head (a); the temo, or beam (b); the stiva, or handle (c); the dentales, or share head (d); and the romer or share (e). The other parts, the aura or mould board, and the culler or coulter, composed no part of the simplest form of Ro man plough; the plough staff, or paddle, was a detached part; and the manicula, or part which the ploughman took hold of, was a short bar fixed across, or into the handle, and the draught pole (ƒ) was that part to which the oxen were attached. 112. The plough described by Virgil, had a mould board, and was used for covering seed and ridging; but that which we have depicted, was the common form used in stirring the soil. To supply the place of our mould boards, this plough required either a sort of diverging stick (g), inserted in the share head, or to be held obliquely and sloping towards the side to which the earth was to be turned. The Romans did not plough their fields in beds, by circumvolving furrows, as we do; but the cattle returned always in the same furrow. 113. Wheel ploughs, Lasteyrie thinks, were invented in or not long before the time of Pliny, who attri butes the invention to the inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul. Virgil seems to have known such ploughs and refers to them in his Georgics. In the Greek monuments of antiquity are only four or five examples of these. Lasteyrie has given figures of three wheel ploughs from Caylus's Collection of Antiquities (fig. 13. a and b), and from a Sicilian medal (c). 114. The urpex or irper, seems to have been a plank with several teeth used as our brake or cultivator, to break rough ground, and tear out roots and weeds. 14 115. The crates seems to have been a kind of harrow. 119. The bidens (bi dens) seems to have been a two-pronged hoe of large size, and with a hammer at the other end used to break clods. These were used chiefly in cultivating vineyards. 120. The ligo seems to have been a spade (fig. 14.), and the pala a shovel or sort of spade, or probably a synonyne. The ligo and pala were made of wood only, of oak shod with iron, or with the blade entirely of iron. 121. The securis seems to have been an axe, and the same term was applied to the blade of the pruning knife, which was formed like a crescent. 122. The dolabre was a kind of adze for cutting roots in tree culture. 123. The reaping hook seems to have been the same as that in modern use: some were used for cutting off the ears of far or maize, and these, it may be presumed, were not serrated like our sickles; others for cutting wheat and barley near the ground, like our reaping hook. In the south of Gaul, Pliny informs us, they had invented a reaping machine: from his description this machine must have borne a considerable resemblance to that used in Suffolk, for cropping the heads off clover left for seed, and not unlike other modern attempts at an engine of this description. (See fig. 16.) This may seem truly remarkable: but man is every where, and at all times, the same animal; and the |