are either general, as the board of agriculture and society of arts; national, as the Highland society and Dublin institution; particular, as the Bath and West of England society; provincial, as county societies; and parochial, as being limited to a few individuals within one parish; of this kind are farmer's clubs, ploughing societies, &c. In regard to the end in view, these societies either embrace the arts in general, the rural arts in general, or some branch of the rural art, as agriculture; or some department in that branch, as live stock, sheep, wool, &c.

7124. All these societies hold meetings at stated periods; most of them offer premiums for particular objects, specimens of vegetable or animal culture or produce -agricultural operations,- moral and professional merits, as servants, &c.; some of them form a library and museum of models or full sized implements-a few publish transac tions, and one or two, as the Dublin society, send out itinerant ploughmen and agricul tural mechanics to instruct practical farmers. These societies are almost wholly supported, and the fund for premiums raised by the subscriptions of members, and by voluntary donations, legacies, &c. ; but some, as the board of agriculture and the Dublin society, have received assistance from government.

7125. Of English agricultural societies the oldest is the society of arts founded in 1754, by Lord Folkstone, Lord Romney, Dr. Hales, and Shepley. They have published many volumes of transactions, awarded immense sums in premiums, and, on the whole, done much good. (See Rees's Cyc. art. Society.)

7126. The Bath and West of England society was founded in 1777, for purposes similar to those of the London society of arts: they have published some valuable volumes of transactions, and distributed various rewards, &c. (Rees's Cyc. &c.)

7127. The board of agriculture was founded under the authority of government about 1793; much was expected from this board, but, excepting the publication of the county reports, and the general attention which it called to agriculture, it may well be asked what advantages arose from it. Their Communications, in several quarto volumes, contain fewer valuable papers in proportion to their total number than either the London society of arts, or the Bath societies publications; in short, it has been ably shewn in The Farmer's Magazine, and the article agriculture in the supplement to the Exc. Brit, that the board never directed its efforts in a manner suitable to its powers and consequence; and that instead of discussing modes of culture, its attention ought to have been directed to the removal of the political obstacles to agriculture, and to the eliciting of agricultural talent by honorary rewards, &c. No idea is more erroneous than that of such a board, or any other doing much good by a national "experimental farm." Horticulture is much better adapted for improvement in this way than agriculture, but a few years will shew whether the immense garden of the London Horticultural Society will answer the expectation of the subscribers.

7128. Of Welsh societies there are only two or three of inferior note, which have been already noticed in the topography of the country.

7129. Of Scotch societies the principal now existing are the Highland society and the Dalkeith farming society.

7130. The Highland society of Scotland was established in 1785, to enquire into the state of the Highlands, to consider the means of their improvement, and the preservation of their language; it is chiefly supported by the subscriptions of its members at a guinea each, a year, and a grant of 3000l. from government, soon after its establishment. It has published 5 vols. of prize essays and papers, and now extends its prizes to all the low counties of Scotland. (Farm. Mag. vol. 16-316.)

7131. Of Irish societies the principal are the Dublin society and the Cork institution. 7132. The Dublin society was established in 1731, and incorporated in 1749. Arthur Young observes, that it was the parent of all the similar societies now existing in Europe; but the Edinburgh agricultural society, as we have seen, (775. and 801.) was establisæd nearly ten years before. The Dublin society, in its present advanced state, is one of the most complete establishments of the kind that exists. (Rees's Cyc. art. Dublin.)

7133. The farming society of Ireland was established under the patronage of the Dublin society in 248 The object is to improve the agriculture and live stock of the kingdom. (Archer's Dublin, Irl

7134. The Cork institution, for applying science to the common purposes of life, originated in private subscriptions about the beginning of the present century; it has since been incorporated, and received the assistance of government, has a house, large botanic garden, and under its auspices are delivered lectures on chemistry, botany, agriculture, &c.; it is not, however, in a flourishing state, and has never been of much use.

7135. The principal county societies in the three kingdoms have been noticed in the topography of agriculture: many of them were established several years before the board of agriculture.

7136. The only other institutions for the improvement of agriculturists and agriculture ate public professorships: of these there is one in the university of Edinburgh, established

in 1795; one in Dublin, supported by the Dublin society; one in Cork, and one is. destined to be established at some future period in Oxford, agreeably to the will and donation of Dr. Sibthorpe (7004.), professor of botany there.

BOOK II.

OF THE FUTURE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN BRITAIN.

7137. The improvement of agriculture, like that of every art, manufacture, or commodity, necessarily depends on demand and production: a powerful or effectual demand will ensure produce, and excellent produce will, to a certain extent, create demand. A general nicety of taste in coach or saddle horses will call forth a superior description of these animals, and superior animals will tempt purchasers; if the inhabitants of any district who live chiefly on barley or oats, indicate a preference for wheat, and a willingness to pay for that grain, wheat will be produced, and so on. Again, as the object of every individual who engages in art or trade, is to acquire gain, the advancement of an art will depend mainly on the profits it affords; an art or occupation which affords less than the average profits on capital, will only be followed by such as, from habit or other reasons, cannot apply themselves to any thing better, but extra profits will command both capital and skill. From these considerations it is obvious that the improvement of agriculture depends on the profits on capital employed in it, on the taste of those who purchase its products, and on the knowledge of those who are engaged in agriculture as a profession. The first subject would lead us further into political economy than would be of much use in a work of this kind, and therefore we shall limit ourselves to a few remarks on the other topics.

CHAP. I.

Of the Improvement of Agriculture by refining the Taste of the Purchasers of its Products, and increasing the Knowledge of Agricultural Patrons.

7138. The desire of being comfortable is the first step towards improvement; but be fore any thing can be desired, we must know what it is. Men rest satisfied with what they have when they know of nothing better, and therefore one of the main sources of improving the taste both of those who purchase agricultural produce from necessity, and those patrons of agriculture who purchase jointly from necessity and choice, is the increase of knowledge. Could a taste for wheaten bread and butcher meat be introduced generally among the operative classes in Scotland and Ireland, the advantages to agriculture would be immense. Could the same persons be taught to desire a greater degree of cleanliness, light and warmth in their cottages, a greater variety of potherbs, salads, fruits, and flowers in their gardens, and handsome dresses for their wives and daughters; how great the general benefit! Much may be done to bring about this change, by the opulent who are willing to reside on their estates and to take a little trouble. Building good and comfortable cottages, and attaching proper gardens, and stocking them with trees and plants from the demesne garden; offering little premiums, or marks of distinction for keeping them in the nicest order, and for decently clothed, well-bred children, would soon have a sensible effect; attending to that kind of education which consists in teaching infants civility and politeness, with mutual respect and restraint as occasion requires; and teaching grown children how to work at almost every thing likely to come in their way, as is done in the improved German and Swiss schools, would, independently of reading and writing, do a great deal to soften and humanize the peasant mind. Encouragement should be given to save money for unforseen wants, or age; and the certain effects pointed out of early marriages, followed by numerous offspring. These and a variety of similar means would be productive of some change of taste in the operative part of rural society.

7139. The introduction of manufacturing establishments, wherever it could be properly done, would contribute to the same effect: those who work at manufactures, and even common mechanics, generally live better, and are better clothed and lodged than the common country laborer; therefore their example would be of use in introducing a salutary degree of luxury. "The endeavoring to impress on the minds of the lower

classes, the propriety of being contented with the simplest and cheapest fare, is extremely pernicious to the best interests of mankind. Enconiums ought not to be bestowed on those who are contented with mere necessaries: on the contrary, such indifference ought to be held disgraceful. A taste for the comforts, the enjoyments, and even the luxuries of life, should be as widely diffused as possible, and if possible, interwoven with the national character and prejudices. This, as it appears to us, is the best mode of attempting the amelioration of the condition of the lower classes. Luxuries, and if you will have it so, even wasteful habits, are incomparably better than that cold, sluggish apathy, which would content itself with what can barely continue mere animal existence." "In those countries," Ricardo judiciously observes, "where the laboring classes have the fewest wants, and are contented with the cheapest food, the people are exposed to the greatest vicissitudes and miseries: they have no place of refuge from calamity; they cannot seek safety in a lower station; they are already so low that they can fall no lower. On any deficiency of the chief article of their subsistence, there are few substitutes of which they can avail themselves, and dearth to them is attended with almost all the evils of famine." (Sup. Encyc. Brit. art. Corn Laws.) Such is the case in Ireland, where amidst the germs of the greatest riches and luxury, the inhabitants are contented to live on less than any other people in the world.

7140. The taste of the superior patrons of agriculture is to be improved by visiting the best cultivated districts, reading agricultural works, attending agricultural societies, and, above all, by cultivating a farm, and establishing on it a systematic order and regularity in every detail. Let such observe the hedges, gates, verges of fields, and the beautiful rows of turnips, of Berwickshire or Northumberland; the correctly drilled beans of East Lothian, and the live stock of Leicestershire. But few are the proprietors of lands who either employ a proper bailiff or demesne steward; and of those who do, how few who do not limit and fetter them in their operations, or else neglect them and leave them to sink into that supine state in which the uppermost wish is to enjoy the comforts of the situation with the least possible degree of exertion! Some proprietors desire to have their home farm managed with a view to profit, as the cheapest way of getting hay, straw, mutton, &c.; these are sordid patrons: a home farm ought to combine an elegant orderly style of management, high kept horses, harness, implements, &c., well clothed servants, and every thing in a superior style to what is seen on common farms. Particular attention ought to be paid to the buildings, which ought to combine architectural design, fitness, strength, and elegance; the roads ought to be like approaches to a mansion; the hedges like those of gardens, and the green verges round the fields kept mown like lawns or grass walks, and the ditches, bridges, and gates in correspond. ing neatness; the finest trees ought to be encouraged in proper situations, and correctly pruned, and substantial watering places formed and kept supplied. Every operation on plants, or the ground, performed in a garden-like manner, and no individual of any species of stock kept, of which a drawing might not be taken and preserved as a beauty. Even the dress and deportment of the servants on such a farm ought to harmonize with the rich culture, orderly display, and high keeping of the whole.

CHAP. II.

On the Improvement of Agriculture by the better Education of those who are engaged in it

as a Profession.

7141. By education is generally understood that portion of knowledge which is obtained at schools; but in a more extended sense (as Mills observes) it may be de fined the means which may be employed to render man competent for performing the part which he undertakes to perform in life with increased satisfaction to himself and others. Education may thus be considered as extending to every thing which operates on the body or mind, from the earliest periods of our existence to the final extinction of life. It is unnecessary here to embrace the subject in its full extent, but we shall offer some remarks on the education of practical men in general, on the professional education of an agriculturist, and the general conduct and econ of his life.

SECT. I.

On the Degree of Knowledge which may be attained by Practical Men, and on the general Powers of the human Mind as to Attainments.

7142. The knowledge of languages, history, geography, arts, sciences, and literÄNTY, which an agriculturist, whether a ploughman, shepherd, bailiff, steward, or rent-paying

farmer, daily occupied with his profession, may acquire, provided he begins at the earliest moment, say at fifteen years of age, and continues to employ his leisure hours in reading till he is twenty or twenty-five, is by no means inconsiderable; not that he can or need become learned; but, if desirous, he may become generally intelligent, render himself fit, as far as conversation is concerned, for good society, prove instructive and entertaining to others by his conversation, and provide a reserve fund of enjoyment, by laying up a store of ideas for reflection in misfortune, disease, or old age.

7143. The utility of knowledge to that part of mankind who are doomed to a life of mechanical labor, or rather who suffer themselves to be doomed to it, has been questioned; it is said to render them dissatisfied with their condition, to produce various other evils, and at all events in no way to add to their happiness or the good of society. To a man whose business in life is the mere mechanical performance of operations which any other animal might perform if furnished with hands, education is doubtless less necessary, than to a man whose business is to direct the operations of others; but it does not follow, that though less necessary, it may not be highly useful: if, for example, it renders him dissatisfied with his condition, it will, at the same time, be more likely than any thing else to lead him to some proper mode of improving it; or if almost unimprovable, education certainly will be more likely than a state of ignorance to teach patience and submission, by enabling him to reflect on the folly of grieving at what is inevitable, and the consequences of committing what is unjust or criminal to relieve himself. "The low Irish," Marshal remarks, “are sufficiently dissatisfied with their condition; those who know how to alleviate it by emigration, go to Britain or America; those who know nothing, stay at home, commit acts of violence, and are hanged."

7144. To decide as to the utility of knowledge to the operative parts of society would perhaps require a previous decision of the question, "what constitutes happiness?" The general answer is, the exercise of all our faculties of body and mind: every one who has lived thirty or forty years in the world, knows that there is no such thing as absolute happiness: the prince de Ligne, a man of great natural parts, with every advantage of person, birth, and wealth, and in favor at all the courts of Europe; fond alike of war, literature, gallantry, and agriculture, and who lived to be upwards of 90 years of age, has left on record that he was only perfectly happy two or three times in his life, and only for a few minutes each time. Forsyth Principles of Moral Science, vol. i. chap. 1.) says, happiness is a thing not to be thought of, and all that men and women can do in order to make the most of their existence, is to occupy themselves and make progress in whatever they engage in ; progress in enjoyment, or approximation to happiness may therefore be obtained.

7145. The utility of knowledge to every human being is consequently, in our opinion, unquestionable, on the mere principle of adding to enjoyment; nor do we believe that there is more danger from excess of knowledge in any particular class of society, high or low, than there is from excess in their eating or drinking. A number of men possessed of property or power by inheritance, favor, or chance, who are very conscious that they never could have acquired those advantages by the common competition of talent and industry, and who are in fact wrapt up in selfishness, are naturally jealous of the progress of knowledge; their secret maxim is to keep down the lower orders, and to impress on their minds only the duties of loyalty, religion, and, as Vancouver adds, hard work. This monopoly of power and knowledge, however, cannot be maintained for ever, and in every country is found rapidly yielding to the general progress of society. It is only those who have to dread this progress that fear the diffusion of education and liberal principles.

7146. The terms knowledge and ignorance are entirely relative: the knowledge of a modern chemist's porter would have subjected him to be hanged and burned in the days of the first popes; and any bricklayer's laborer of the present day who reads the London newspapers, has more correct ideas of the principles of political economy, than nine-tenths of the nobility in Russia and Spain. It is impossible to set limits to the knowledge which may be obtained by those who are destined even to the most severe and constant labor; the intelligence of the miners in Scotland and Sweden may be referred to as proofs. The miners at Leadhills have a regular library and reading society, and the works they make choice of are not only histories, voyages, travels, &c. but even works of taste, such as the British classics, and best novels and romances. The degree to which knowledge will prevail among any class of laboring men, will depend jointly on their own ambition; on the demand for or reputation in which knowledge is held, and on the opportunities of acquiring it. A dull, stupid person, with little native activity, will never desire to know more than what enables him to supply the ordinary wants of life; but where the workmen of any art are required to have technical knowledge of any particular kind, they will be found invariably to possess it. Thus carpenters and masons require some knowledge of the mechanical principles of

architecture, and working engineers of the strength of materials; and these kinds of knowledge are acquired by them without an hour's interruption of their daily labor; on the contrary, the habit of evening study renders them more steady, sober, and industrious than other workmen; than bricklayers and paper hangers, for example, whose employments require much less intellectual skill. If every cook-maid, before she could obtain a first-rate place, were required to be able to read Apicius Redivivus in the original tongue, there would be no want of learned cooks; and if no bailiff' could obtain a first-rate situation who had not written a thesis in Greek, or who had not made the tour of Europe, there would soon be found abundance of bailiffs so qualified. A Caledonian, when he comes to the low country, soon acquires the English tongue, and if he has been taught latin, thus knows three languages. The servants at the inns on some parts of the continent, frequented by different nations, often acquire moderate knowledge of three or four languages: a late custom-house officer on the island of Constadt, spoke and wrote ten languages; and the bar-maid at the hotel de Londres, at which we lodged in Moscow, in 1814, could make herself intelligible in Swedish, Russian, Polish, German, French, Italian, and English.

7147. The certain way of obtaining anything, is to be impressed with the necessity of possessing it, either to avoid the evil of being without it, to satisfy the desires of others as to ourselves, or our own desires. There is scarcely any thing that a rational man can desire that he may not obtain, by maintaining on his mind a powerful impression of the necessity of obtaining it; pursuing the means of attainment with unceasing perseverance, and keeping alive that enthusiasm and ardor which always accompany powerful desires. All may not acquire by the same degree of labor, the same degree of eminence; but any man by labor may attain a knowledge of all that is already known on any subject, and that degree of knowledge is respectable; what many never attain to, and what few go beyond.

7148. The grand drawback to every kind of improvement is, the vulgar and degrading idea that certain things are beyond our reach; whereas the truth is, every thing is attainable by the employment of means; and nothing, not even the knowledge of a common laborer, without it: there are many things, which it is not desirable to wish for, and which are only desired by men of extraordinary minds; but let no man fancy any thing is impossible to him, for this is the bane of all improvement. Let no young ploughman, therefore, who reads this, even if he can but barely read, imagine that he may not become eminent in any of the pursuits of life or departments of knowledge, much less in that of his profession: let him never lose sight of this principle—that to desire and apply is to attain, and that the attainment will be in proportion to the app.ication.

SECT. II. Of the Professional Education of Agriculturists.

7149. In order that a professional man should excel as such, every other acquirement must be kept subservient to that of his profession. No branch of knowledge should be pursued to any extent that, either of itself, or by the habits of thinking to which it gives rise, tends to divert the mind from the main object of pursuit; something, it is true, is due to relaxation in every species of acquirement; but judicious relaxation only serves to whet the appetite for the vigorous pursuit of the main object. By the professional edu cation of agriculturists, we mean that direction of their faculties by which they will best acquire the science and manual operations of agriculture, and we shall suppose agricultural pupils generally, to have no other scholastic education than some knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

7150. All young men who intend embracing agriculture as a profession, whether as ploughmen, bailiffs, stewards, land valuers, or rent-paying farmers, ought to undergo a course of manual labor for one or more years, in order to acquire the mechanism of ail agricultural operations: when the pupil is not destined for any particular county, then he should be sent to a farmer in a district of mixed agriculture; as for example, East Lothian, where he would, if placed in a wheat and bean culture farm, see at no great distance the turnip system and feeding, and a few miles off, the mourtain sheep-farming or breeding: when the pupil is intended to be settled in any particu lar county, he ought to be sent to a county as near as possible of similar soil and climate, where the best practices are in use, as from all the turnip counties, pupils should go to Northumberland or Berwickshire; from the clay counties to East Lothian, or the carse of Gowrie; from a mountainous district to the Cheviot bris, and Tweedale, &c.

7151. The term of apprenticeship completed, the future time of the pupil ought to be regulated according to the ultimate object in view if he is intended as a plougt man, shepherd, or hedger, perhaps to introduce new practices in other counties, he may remain for a year or two longer with other masters in the same district, in order not