7. The great number of abbreviations.

Of these we have already treated, (supra, pp. 118-121, 228): in addition to the remarks there made, it may be observed that z was commonly used for et; neq3 and quib* for neque and quibus; cpacone for comparatione; the letter q was frequently printed with a cross along its tail thus in order to express quam, quod, &c. &c.

8. The absence of the printer's name, of the place where, and the date of the year when, the book was printed.

9. The absence of signatures and catch-words. Signatures are those letters of the alphabet, which are put at the bottom of the right-hand pages of sheets, to distinguish their order. When the alphabet is finished, a second begins, A a, instead of a single A; and when that is terminated, A a a are given for the third, and so on. In order to indicate more correctly the order of each sheet, printers add to the initial letter some figures on the third, fifth, and seventh pages: the numbers of these figures, which do not pass the middle of the sheet, point out the size of the edition. Thus A 2, on the third page, A 3 on the fifth, and A 4 on the seventh page, shew a work to be in octavo. In the duodecimo size, A 5 occurs on the ninth page, and A 6 on the eleventh page, &c.

In some modern French works, figures are substituted for letters, and the other leaves are marked by asterisks.

The invention of signatures is ascribed by M. Marolles to John of Cologne, who printed at Venice in 1474: the Abbé Rive attributes it to John Koelhof, a printer at Cologne, and cotemporary with the former; from whom

we have a work dated in 1472. It is intituled (according to Laire, for Rive has only alluded to the book) Joannis Nyder preceptorium divine legis, folio, with the following subscription: Impressum colonie per magistrum Joannem Koelof de Lubick, anno Dni MCCCCLXXII. In his notice of this work, Laire remarks, Folia signantur ab a. ad mmiijj, iterato alphabetico progressu. This account of Laire is confirmed by Santander; who adds that this book is the more remarkable as being the first that issued from Koelhof's presses. The subscription is followed by twenty-eight leaves, without signatures, containing the alphabetical table of matters'.

Catch-words (Literæ reclamantes or custodes) are those words, formerly placed at the right-hand corner of the blank line, which terminates each page of a sheet: they are always the same as those with which the following page begins. Their use is to assist the bookbinder in his work, and to prevent mistakes in arranging the sheets. Catch-words are found in MSS. of the eleventh century, and were first applied to printing, by Vindelin de Spira at Venice': they are now almost generally disused, both in England and on the Continent.

Prior to the use of catch-words, printers had recourse to a register, or alphabetical table of the first word of the chapters; in order that the binder might properly dispose the sheets for sewing. Registers were introduced in 1469 or 1470.

Laire Index Librorum, tom. 1. p. 281. Santander, Dict. du XV. Siecle, tom. 2. p. 207, who refers to a dissertation of his own, at the end of vol. v. of his own Catalogue, in which he treats on the first use of signatures and figures in the art of printing.

2 Santander Dict. du XV. Siecle, tom. 2. p. 383.

SECTION II.

On the Rarity of Books.

NOTWITHSTANDING the multiplicity of books, which has afforded a fertile theme for complaint ever since the days of Solomon, there are many which it is by no means easy to obtain: their degrees of rarity may in general be estimated from the difficulties which occur in procuring them; and these difficulties increase or diminish according to the difference of times, places, and persons.

Thus, a book shall to-day be very common, which, ten or twenty years hence, or perhaps in less time, will be very rare. Another may easily be obtained abroad, which may be sought for in vain at home. A third may readily be acquired by one who has a very extensive correspondence in Europe; while it is inaccessible to another, whose connexions are confined within the limits of his own country.

As large libraries are but small, when compared with the multitude of books which have issued from the press since its invention, it frequently happens that we seek in vain for different works; either because so few copies are extant that it is morally impossible to acquire one; or because the work has been so widely circulated,

that copies almost insensibly disappear, or are nearly all withdrawn from commerce. Hence a book may be common in public libraries, which is exceedingly rare in those of private individuals: thus the Acta Sanctorum (a mass of various and profound learning, in fifty-three volumes folio) occupies a place in almost all public libraries on the Continent, but is found in few private collections, on account of the very high price it bears.

There are then two sorts or classes of scarce books; 1. Such as are absolutely rare, from the small number of copies which have been printed; and 2. Such as are scarce only in some respects, which may be termed relatively rare. To these two classes are referable all the various observations concerning the rarity of books and editions. We must not however confound works with the different editions of them which have been published. A book may be obtained without difficulty, of which exceedingly rare editions may be extant; as will be more particularly stated in the course of this Section'.

Of Books whose Rarity is absolute.

This class may be divided into nine different articles:

Essai de Bibliographie, in Duclos aud Cailleau, Dict. Bibliographique, Historique et Critique, tom. 3. pp. 485-490. To this essay we are partly

§ 1. Antient Manuscripts before or since the Invention of Printing.

Original manuscripts constitute the riches of libraries: they are mostly written on vellum, and are in the highest request, especially when they are ornamented with miniatures, illuminated, and in a good state of preserva

tion.

For an account of the age, styles of writing, illumination, and other particulars relative to MSS. the reader is referred to Part I. chap. ii. sect. ii. pp. 84-143, supra.

§ 2. Works of which a very few Copies only have been printed.

This arises, either from the abstruse nature of the subject treated in such works, and the consequently limited demand for them, or from the policy and timidity of the publisher. The recent reprints of valuable or curious old works, in this country, sufficiently illustrate this remark. But on this point the bibliographical student must not be too credulous. In the Preface to his Considerations sur les Coups d'Etat, (Rome, 4to, 1630) Gabriel Naudé says that he printed only TWELVE copies. M. de Colomies, however, asserts, in his Recueil des Particularités, that upwards of one hundred copies are extant. (Colomesii Opera, p. 326, 4to. Hamb. 1709.) The statement of Naudé is confirmed by Patin, who says that the impression was made to facilitate the reading of the book to Naudé's patron, Cardinal Bagni, for whom he had composed it. (Patiniana, p. 111.) This at least is certain, that the Considerations are of very rare ocindebted for the general principles of the present section: some of its illustrations are, on account of their length, necessarily referred to the Appendix.

Y