not in pot-ash, salt of tartar, and similar vegetable salts. In 1741, M. Prodiger published (in German) some instructions to bookbinders: he recommends them to substitute starch for flour, in making their paste, insects being less fond of the former. Further, in order to preserve books from their attack, some pulverised alum, mixed with a little fine pepper, should be put between the book and the cover; and a little may also be strewed upon the shelves of the library and lastly, the books should be well rubbed in March, July, and September, with a piece of woollen cloth, strewed with powdered alum. The placing of small bags of pulverised pepper upon the shelves will also prevent depredations: and the progress of mischief, already commenced, has been stayed, by strewing pepper among the damaged leaves.

Where engravings or books become brown, or are accidentally stained, Chaptal recommends a simple immersion of them in oxygenated muriatic acid, for a longer or shorter space of time, according to the strength of the liquid; which will suffice to whiten an engraving. But, in whitening the paper of a bound book, it is ne

the alum with their glue this process must be performed before their eyes. It is neither expensive nor difficult, and (he adds) "I have always been fully satisfied with it." Achard, Cours de Bibliographie, tom. 3. p. 217.

cessary that all the leaves should be moistened by the acid and therefore the book must be well opened, and the leaves separated; and the boards must be made to rest on the edge of the vessel, that contains the whitening liquor. In the course of the process, this liquor assumes a yellow tint, and the paper becomes proportionably white. At the end of two or three hours, the book may be taken from the acid liquor, and immersed into pure water; which should be renewed every hour, to extract the remaining acid, and dissipate the disagreeable smell.

In order to render this process more effectual, the bookbinders destroy the binding, unsew the book and separate its leaves :-they then place these in cases, formed in a leaden tub with very thin slips of wood or glass; so that the leaves may lie flat, and separate from each other at small intervals. The acid is then gently poured into the tub without deranging the leaves: when the paper is become sufficiently white, the acid liquor is drawn off by a cock at the bottom of the tub; and its place is supplied by clean, fresh water. The leaves are then dried; and, after being pressed, are re-bound.

By this operation books are not only cleaned, but the paper acquires a degree of whiteness, superior to that which it possessed when first manufactured. By means of the oxygenated

muriatic acid, ink-spots may also be extracted; but spots of oil or animal grease can only be removed by the application of a weak solution of pot-ash, or by the following process recommended by M. Deschamps. He directs as much as possible of the grease to be removed by means of blotting-paper; after which a small brush, dipped in the essential oil of well rectified spirit of turpentine heated almost to ebullition, is to be drawn gently over both sides of the paper, which must be carefully kept warm. This operation is to be repeated as often as the quantity of the grease imbibed by the paper, or the thickness of the latter, may render necessary. When the grease is entirely removed, the paper may be restored to its former whiteness by dipping another brush in highly rectified spirit of wine, and drawing it in a similar manner over the stained place, and particularly round the edges, in order to obliterate the border which would still present a stain.

CHAPTER II.

On the Knowledge of Books, their relative Value and Scarcity.-Prices of Books, &c.

SECTION I.

On the Difference between antient and modern Edittons.

In the infancy of printing, it has already been observed, the first productions of the press were made closely to resemble manuscripts, particularly in the forms of the letters. Hence, in early printed books the characters were of an extraordinary size, as in the celebrated bible of Mentz: by degrees the printers diminished their types; the alterations in which are easily perceived since the close of the fifteenth century.

The first printed books are totally destitute of figures at the top of the pages, as well as of signatures and catch-words: at first, when the printers began to number their pages, they placed large Roman figures at the top of the recto of each leaf, and they reckoned by leaves instead of pages; afterwards, each page was numbered by Arabic figures, the use of which is retained to the present time.

The following are the marks, by which edi

tions of the fifteenth century, without date, may be ascertained.

1. The absence of titles printed on a separate leaf.

It was not till 1476 or 1480, that the titles of books were printed on detached leaves: titles to chapters were first used in the Epistles of Cicero, printed in 1470.

2. The absence of capital letters, at the beginning of divisions.

In the infancy of typography, the printers were accustomed to leave blank spaces at the commencement of books and chapters; which the purchasers of the books afterwards caused to be filled up by the illuminators, who placed the initial letters on these blanks, accompanied by some miniature, or by some ornament of gold or in various colours'.

3. The rare occurrence of such divisions. 4. The disuse of commas and semi-colons. This was a consequence of the exactness, with which the antient printers imitated manuscripts. Some remarks on the punctuation of early printed books have been given in a former page.

5. The inequality and thickness of the types. Although this defect is justly imputable to some editions of the fifteenth century, yet others are extant, which are not inferior to some of the best modern printing.

6. The solidity and thickness of the paper.

This mark also is a consequence of the close manner in which MSS. were imitated; the paper being manufactured so as to resemble vellum as much as possible.

' Vide supra, Part I. ch. III. sect. vii. p. 250-252.

Vide supra, p. 238.