All these reforms and services were set on foot with the help of foreign advisers of many nationalities, but mainly British, who, on the whole, appear to have been carefully chosen, and whose personalities, if the man could be found to describe them, would provide material for an interesting volume on Far Eastern history. But at the same time these reforms could never have come into being, or even been begun, but for the driving force behind them in the person of the wise, far-seeing, and energetic king, assisted by his able brother and lieutenant, Prince Damrong, happily still living.

Curious and paradoxical as it may seem, Siam is a really democratic land, and one of the most endearing traits in King Chulalongkorn's character was his habit of going among his people and mixing with them as an ordinary individual, unheralded and unknown-a modern Haroun al Raschid. There is no doubt that in that habit lay largely the secret of his success. This was the heritage which he handed down to his son Rama VI in 1910, and with the latter's accession to the throne we enter the second phase of the development of Siam on Western lines.

It is not to be supposed that all the reforms introduced in the previous reign had been carried through to a successful conclusion. Much still remained to be done. Extra-territoriality, for instance, still existed to serve as a reminder that the foreign Powers were not yet willing to regard Siam as capable of protecting fully the interests and property of their respective nationals, though a tentative effort in this direction had been made in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909.

In the April, 1926, number of The Record, the official trade journal of the Siamese Government, published by the Ministry of Commerce and Communications, appeared a survey of the resources of Siam, with a review of the foreign trade and commerce during Rama VI's reign, which showed clearly the expansion of trade that had taken place in that period. Briefly, both imports and exports more than doubled in the fifteen years, the growth in exports being mainly due to the increased production of rice.

Next, to turn to railways. Up to modern times all communication in Siam was by water except for jungle tracks. King Chulalongkorn inaugurated his railway policy in the late 'eighties, and at the time he died there were 585 miles of line open to traffic. At the close of 1925 that total had risen to 1,615 miles.

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In the last years of the reign the great task of building the "Rama VI " bridge across the Menam, to link up the two systems of railways, was begun, though it was not open to traffic until January 1, 1927, in the second year of the present reign.

The problem of road-making is also now beginning to receive attention, but only in the most outlying provinces of the country, and a general system of good roads will have to wait for a more generous supply of money.

An important work of development has been a series of irrigation projects, to protect all the chief rice-growing districts against drought and flood and the general effects of bad weather, and to secure reasonable crops for these districts under all conditions. Experts were obtained from India in 1913, and the first large scheme known as the Pasak South Canal project, which was selected to safeguard the crops in the Rangsit area, was completed and opened by the late king in 1924, at a cost of about 15 million ticals. It is said by competent authority to be one of the finest works of its kind in the Orient, and the actual barrage gates, of which there are six, to be the largest in the world. There are a number of other important schemes in contemplation or in partial execution, but the work itself has been somewhat delayed owing to the financial stringency of the past

few years.

Another important piece of development work, begun in 1917-18, has been the introduction of co-operative credit societies among the peasant farmer proprietors of Siam. There are now about eighty societies in the Lopburi and Pitsanulok districts, which are for the most part achieving excellent results; but the movement is still in its infancy and, though its value has received due recognition from the present king, it has not yet been properly appreciated by the people generally. When it is, it will make rapid headway, as it is peculiarly suited to the Siamese temperament. This is indeed the only practical means of ridding the countryside of debt; of forming an economic basis for the accumulation of wealth; and of awakening in the people a political consciousness.

There are many other works, which cannot be reviewed in detail here, but all of which are helping in the development of the country. They include waterworks to supply Bangkok with pure water, electrical power stations, an aerial postal service in

the north-eastern region of Siam (a service which has run for five years now without a hitch), a Pasteur Institute of some fame already, and a medical college, aided by the Rockefeller Institute. The Red Cross Society, which was originally formed in King Chulalongkorn's reign, has been reorganised on strong lines and works in co-operation with the very active department of public health. There is now a society for the promotion of animal welfare; also an archæological department, to schedule and care for the country's historical monuments. In this latter regard, it may be remarked that the Siam Society, founded some years ago for the encouragement of arts and literature in Siam, is now firmly established and doing good work. A navy league has been formed, also a volunteer system under the name of "Wild Tigers" (the scouts of ancient times), with its admirable younger brother, the Boy Scout movement.

In legislation the new Civil and Commercial Codes have been published, and laws have been decreed dealing, inter alia, with the importation of drugs and firearms, the abolition of public gambling, establishing compulsory vaccination, and providing for the introduction of the metric system. Opportunities for thrift have been created by the establishment of a National Savings Bank, which, unfortunately owing to the low rate of interest and to too much red tape, has not caught on; and for social service and self-government, by the introduction of municipalities in several provincial towns. Great progress may be registered in the opportunities for games and physical development, and the Siamese are now keen devotees of association football, tennis, golf and boxing. In fact, education--both physical and mentalhas advanced in a very marked degree, culminating in 1921 in the Compulsory Education Act, providing for the elementary education of all boys and girls. This Act has however not yet been applied throughout the land. A university has been founded at Bangkok, with faculties of medicine, political science, and arts and sciences. This university is not as yet fully equipped or fully performing its functions, but still a start has been made and a nucleus formed, which will, it is hoped, in time provide a true university training. The establishment of a university is, perhaps, one of the most ambitious schemes now being tried.

A most valuable step forward has been the enquiry, carried out with the aid of a well-known American expert, into the con

servation of the fisheries of Siam, both sea and fresh-water; a department has now been formed to undertake the task of conservation. A botanical survey of the whole country, from the point of view of economic plant life, is being carried on by an English botanical expert. In addition there are now well-equipped analytical and technical laboratories, though on a small scale, the value of whose work is becoming gradually more and more recognised.

In the political world the greatest act of Rama VI was to enter the Great War in 1917 on the side of the Allies, and at its close to join the League of Nations. By doing so, he obtained for Siam much fuller and quicker recognition from the Great Powers than she could possibly have achieved otherwise, and there is no doubt that these wise acts were the means of prompting the United States, in 1920, to offer Siam a new treaty giving her full judicial and fiscal autonomy. This treaty was quickly followed by similar treaties with all the European nations. Politically, Siam has thus accomplished her most cherished desire and, except for one or two judicial guarantees, she is now complete

mistress in her own house.

In finance her course has not been quite so smooth. Owing to careful budgeting, her reputation on the London market was for many years a high one, and loans on favourable terms were never difficult to obtain for development purposes. But towards the close of the last reign it began to be seen that the limit of expansion was being reached in revenue, in the absence of further taxation, while expenditure was creeping ever higher and higher from a variety of causes.

The army and navy, with the aviation service, absorbed a good slice, about 28 per cent. of the country's revenue, and the cost of all the reforms and new works already detailed was, as each branch of service expanded, becoming a source of anxiety to the government. Moreover-and this must be said, not with a desire to rake up past history, but with a view to presenting a true picture a certain laxity in public affairs and an extravagance in personal expenditure began to manifest themselves, which, had they not been checked, would have proved serious obstacles to real national progress. To the country's lasting credit they have in the present reign been checked with a firm hand, and Siam's With budget and credit are now once more on a sound basis.

the coming into force of a new Customs Tariff in March 1927, Siam should now have ample funds to carry on her policy of development.

When King Chulalongkorn in the later years of the nineteenth century first took in hand the re-organisation of the kingdom, modern schools were few and Western methods of teaching were little understood: the education given by the temple schools was, from a layman's standpoint, rudimentary. The consequence was that, during the ensuing forty years, as the official class expanded with the budget, and as Western education rapidly took a firm hold-many students being sent to finish their education abroad-there gradually grew up the feeling that every educated boy must enter the government service. This was a feeling to be encouraged as long as the government needed and could absorb them all, but the limit of expansion in this direction has now been reached, and large numbers of the boys coming out of school every year must find other work to do. The question is arising on all sides--What are we to do with our boys?

To speak frankly, there is little doubt that the adoption of Western methods of government, inevitable as it was, has been responsible for the present state of affairs. Intentionally or not, it has fostered the idea that government service is the only occupation fit for a gentleman and, in doing so, it has created a large bureaucracy which has to be fed. Practically the whole of the educated classes of Siam to-day are consumers only and nonproducers; and, as there is no income tax, they represent a severe drain on the country's resources. It is to the credit of the government that it has recognised this fact, and during the present reign a policy of retrenchment and departmental pruning has been set on foot. The falling of the axe has brought home to the educated class the fact that government service will not provide an " open sesame in the future. So far the economy has not been very drastic and the unwanted officials have been removed quietly and without any noticeable disturbance; but most of the departments of government are still unwieldy, and another forty per cent. of many of the present staffs could be lopped off. The result would be increased efficiency, and the acceptance of a greater measure of responsibility on the part of those who remain. It is literally a disastrous training for a young man fresh from school, eager and alert in body and mind, to be