any two of which are said to be opposed; hence there are four kinds of opposition, viz. :

1. The two Universal (U. A. and U. N.) are called contraries. 2. The two Particular (P. A. and P. N.), sub-contraries.

3. A Universal Affirmative and a Particular Affirmative (U. A. and P. A.); or a Universal Negative and a Particular Negative (U. N. and P. N.), subalterns.

4. A Universal Affirmative and a Particular Negative (U. A. and P. N.); or a Universal Negative and a Particular Affirmative (U. N. and P. A.), contradictories.

Contrary propositions may both be false, but can not both be true. Sub-contrary may both be true, but can not both be false. Of two Sub-alternate propositions, the truth of the Universal proves the truth of the Particular; and the falsity of the particular proves the falsity of the universal, but not vice versa. Of two Contradictory propositions, one must be true and the other false:

§ 456. In order for a proposition to be SIMPLE, its terms must be simple. The Substantive or pronoun, forming one of them, must be the name of an object of incomplex apprehension. The Adjective or participle, that very often forms one, must also be simple. Finally, the Verb, if it stand instead of a participle and copula, must also be simple. A Complex proposition is one which has a complex term, or whose verb, if it stand for both predicate and copula, is modified by some adjunct. See § 442. and § 535.

COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS.

§ 457. COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS are those which are made up of two or more subjects or predicates, or both. They are either Conjunctive or Disjunctive, according as the connection subsisting between those different subjects or predicates is of a copulative or disjunctive character.

1. He is both a knave and a fool (Conjunctive). 2. Every action is good or bad (Disjunctive).

EXERCISE.

Distinguish the compound propositions from such as are compounded in appearance, and state which of the former are conjunctive and which disjunctive, and point out the complex. 1. Friendship either finds or makes men equal.

2. He who voluntarily lives quite alone must be either more or less than a man.

3. The Doctrine which places the chief Good in pleasure is unworthy of a philosopher.

4. It is not the cross, but the cause, which makes the Martyr. 5. The subject and predicate are both distributed in universal negatives.

6. The sun, moon, and stars can not all be seen at once. 7. Either this man hath sinned, or his parents.

8. Extreme riches and poverty are alike to be deprecated.

INDEFINITE PROPOSITION S.

§ 458. An INDEFINITE PROPOSITION is one in which it is left undetermined by the form of the expression whether it is to be considered Universal or Particular; as, Birds sing. We may know from facts that this ought to be considered as a particular proposition some birds sing, but not from the expression itself. "Birds come from eggs." We may know from facts that this ought to be considered as a universal proposition=all birds come from eggs, but not from the expression itself. We are often obliged to judge from the subject matter whether a proposition is Universal or Particular.

TRIFLING PROPOSITIONS.

§ 459. TRIFLING PROPOSITIONS are those in which the relation of the Predicate to the Subject is such that to connect the one with the other is to assert little or nothing. They have the grammatical structure of a proposition, but not the logical force of an assertion.

Under the head of such propositions we may class, (1.) All identical propositions, namely, those in which the Predicate is the same as the Subject; as, "A triangle is a triangle." (2.) Those in which it is a synonym of it; as, "To pardon is to forgive." Akin to these is the enunciation of truths that are so obvious as to be truisms; as, "Man is rational."

Sometimes, however, identical propositions in form are not trifling propositions, as when an emphasis is thrown upon the copula or the predicate; as, "Home is home;" "I am that I

am."

THE RELATION OF THE

PROPOSITION то THE

PARTS OF SPEECH.

§ 460. The Parts of Speech are determined by the structure of propositions; and a word is a Noun, a Conjunction, or a Verb, according to either the place it takes in a proposition, or the relation it bears to one. This will be fully shown from the following statement.

1. Is the Grammatical form of a word a sufficient test? No substantive, in the etymological signification of the term, ends in -ev in Greek, while infinitive verbs do so end. Nevertheless, the infinitive forms, rò pooveiv, Ev T 40ovεiv, are, in value, not verbs, but substantives. For the purposes of Syntax, at least, the logical test, as opposed to the etymological test, is indispensable. This is especially true in the English language, which is more irregular in its etymological forms than the classical languages. In a given case we do not think of saying what part of speech a word is until we have seen it used in a sentence. The etymological form, then, is an insufficient test.

2. Neither is the Phonetic form (i. e., the sound) of a word a test. The same combination of sounds may have a variety of meanings, and may sometimes constitute one part of speech,

sometimes another. The word up is an Adverb in the sentence I go up in a balloon; a Preposition in the sentence I go up a tree.

"Love is not love

Which alters when it alteration finds."

"I do love thee so

That I will shortly send thy soul to heaven.",

"He was present at that love feast."

How do we know what part of speech love is in these several cases? Evidently from the office which it performs, and not from its form. It is a Noun, or a Verb, or an Adjective, according to its office in these three propositions. A part of speech can, in a given case, be distinguished only by examining the speech itself, and the principal speech is the proposition.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH COMPOSE

PROPOSITIONS.

SIMPLE

§ 461. In the classification of the parts of speech already given, we have seen what is the relation which each bears to the proposition.

The SUBSTANTIVE. A word that can enter into the structure of a simple proposition either as the subject or the predicate, is called a Substantive or noun; as, "Iron is hard." Here the word iron is the subject, one of the three parts of a simple proposition. "Washington was president." Here the word presi dent is the predicate, one of the three parts of a simple proposition. A noun is the name of any thing that exists, or that is conceived to exist. Hence we see how it can form the subject of a proposition. "A name," says HOBBES, "is a word taken at pleasure, to serve for a mark, which may raise in our mind a thought like to some thought such as we had before, and which, being pronounced to others, may be to them a sign of what thought the speaker had before in his mind." See § 243.

The ADJECTIVE. A word which can enter into the structure of a simple proposition as a predicate, but not as a subject, is called an Adjective; as, "Snow is white." Here white is the predicate of a simple proposition, but it can not be the subject. We can not say white is snow in the sense of predicating snow of white. See § 264.

The PRONOUN. A word which stands for a noun, and can enter into the structure of a simple proposition either as the subject or the predicate, is a Pronoun. The meaning of a pronoun varies with the variable relations of objects to which it is applied, while the meaning of nouns expresses the constant characteristics of the objects to which it is applied. Nouns are absolute names, pronouns relative. See § 288.

The VERB. A word capable of forming by itself both the predicate and copula of a proposition, is a Verb. See § 317.

Sometimes even the substantive-verb itself is both copula and predicate, namely, where existence alone is affirmed or denied ; as, "God is." Here existing is the predicate.. See § 346.

ARTICLES. Certain words which serve to mark the subject of a proposition as Definite or Indefinite, but with less precision than the demonstrative pronoun or the numeral. These words are an and the. See § 284.

PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH CAN ENTER ONLY INTO

COMPLEX

PROPOSITIONS.

§ 462. ADVERBS. A word which can not by itself form the constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can, in combination with Verbs or Adjectives, form a part of a complex proposition, is called an Adverb. See § 361.

PREPOSITIONS. A word which can not by itself form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can enter into a complex term to express some relation, is a Preposition.

When a word originally a preposition connects with a verb, and simply indicates the manner in which an action takes place, it is, in such case, an adverb. See § 371.

PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH DO NOT ENTER INTO THE

STRUCTURE OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 463. CONJUNCTIONS. A word which connects two proposi tions, without entering into the construction of either, is called a Conjunction. "The day is bright, because the sun is shining."

A conjunction is a word denoting the relation which one proposition bears to another. Some words are employed sometimes as conjunctions and sometimes as prepositions; as, All fled but he. Here the word but is a conjunction, and the propositions