21. From what are this and that derived?

22. Mention LATHAM's opinion as to what are demonstrative pronouns ?

23. In the Indo-European stock of languages, how is the demonstrative idea expressed?

24. In the Anglo-Saxon, what is the form for these?

25. In the Anglo-Saxon, what are the equivalents of those? and of they? and of them? and of their?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

26. What is a relative pronoun, and what office does it perform?

27. Which are the relative pronouns ?

28. What is said of who; also of which; and also of that; and also of what?

29. Decline who and which.

30. Does what admit of any variation?

31. Mention the several ways in which which is used; and in which what is used; and in which that is used.

32. Mention the compound relatives, and state how they are formed.

33. State the distinction between the subjunctive pronouns and the preposipronouns.

tive

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

34. What is an interrogative pronoun ?

35. Which are the interrogative pronouns ?

36. State how who, which, and what, and whether are used.

37. What is the difference between who and which in their application to persons?

38. In the Indo-European languages, how is the relative idea expressed?

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

39. What is an adjective pronoun ?

40. State BUTTMAN's opinion on the subject.

41. What is a reciprocal pronoun, and which are the reciprocal pronouns? 42. Mention the indeterminate pronouns.

43. Give examples of the use of man as an indeterminate pronoun; and of me; and of it; and of one.

CHAPTER VI.

THE VERB.

§ 317. A SUBSTANTIVE VERB is a word that can form the Copula of a proposition; as, "God is great." Here is forms the copula of the proposition, of which great is the predicate, and is by the definition a verb. See § 240.

A COMMON or ADJECTIVE VERB is a word which can form both the Copula and the Predicate of a proposition; as, "The sun shines." Here shines, for grammatical purposes equivalent to is shining, forms both the copula and the predicate of the proposition, and is by the definition a verb. An adjective verb is one that contains in itself an attribute or a predicate.

Or, a Verb is a word which expresses an Assertion; as, "John reads." Here the act of reading is asserted of John. "Sugar is sweet." Here the quality of sweetness is asserted of sugar.

As the verb essentially expresses assertion, without which there could be no communication of thought, it was regarded by the ancient grammarians as the very soul of a sentence, and called verbum = the word. The verb, the verb only, predicates. The Chinese call verbs live words, nouns dead words.

BECKER'S VIEWS.

§ 318. According to BECKER, all notions expressed by language are either notions of activity or notions of existence. The notion of activity is expressed by a verb when the activity is contemplated as bearing on the relations of person, time, and mode to the speaker; as, He drank; he fled; the tree grows. It is expressed by an adjective when it is not thus related to the speaker; as, A drunken man; a flighty thought; a great tree. The notion of existence is ed by a substantive; as, A drinker; a flock; the growth. In favor of this view may be argued,

express

1. That most verbs actually express action in the ordinary or colloquial sense of that term.

2. That verbs now apparently expressing rest or inaction originally denoted action; thus, standing was conceived of as a rising up; reposing as a putting one's self down.

3. That every verb, in a philosophical view, whether looked at physically or metaphysically, expresses motion or action.

4. That this definition of a verb forms a good contrast to that of the substantive, as expressing mere existence.

Verbs are, in point of signification, either Notional Verbs or Relational Verbs.

All verbs are notional words excepting auxiliary verbs, which are relational. These latter verbs express only time, or modality, or the passive voice of a notional verb, which is then termed the principal. See § 341.

§ 319. I. Those of the ANCIENT or STRONG Conjugation, commonly called Irregular. See § 348.

II. Those of the MODERN or WEAK Conjugation, commonly called Regular. See § 354.

Verbs have also been divided into Principal and Auxiliary Verbs, Substantive and Adjective Verbs, Primitive and Derived Verbs.

There are also Reflective, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to their uses: I. TRANSITIVE. II. INTRANSITIVE. Many verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

§ 320. Verbs are called TRANSITIVE if their motion or idea is incomplete without the complementary notion of an object; as, "He struck." Here the meaning of struck is incomplete, for it has no object.

1. Transitive Verbs express an assertion in two forms, called the ACTIVE VOICE and the PASSIVE VOICE.

2. The term transitive signifies passing over. "He struck the boy." Here something is supposed to pass over from the subject to the object. The verb struck is a transitive verb in the active form. "The boy was struck by him." Here the same affirmation is expressed in the passive form. The object of the verb in the former case is the subject in this.

3. The object of a transitive verb is always its complement, which, if not expressed by the speaker or the writer, is supplied by the hearer or the reader from the connection.

U

4. The subject of a transitive verb is sometimes its complement; as, "He struck himself."

INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

§ 321. Verbs are called INTRANSITIVE if their notion or idea is complete without the aid of any complementary notion; as, "He sleeps." Here the meaning of sleeps is complete. It is confined to the subject; it needs no object.

1. The term intransitive means not passing over. runs." Here the act of running is limited to the subject.

"He

2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can not regularly be used in the passive form.

3. Some verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense; as, Range, to place in order; and Range, to roam at large.

4. An intransitive verb can be defined as one which expresses simply being; as, I am; or state of being; as, He sleeps; or action limited to the agent; as, He runs.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS.

§ 322. To verbs belong PERSON, NUMBER, TENSE, MODE, and VOICE. The forms of conjugation are, voices, for the relation of the action of the verb to the subject; modes, for the relation of reality, whether existing, conceived of, or willed by the speaker; tenses, for the relation of time; numbers and persons, to show the number and person of the subject, corresponding with the numbers and persons of personal pronouns.

THE PERSONS OF VERBS.

§ 323. Verbs have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD, corresponding to the threefold distinction in personal pronouns. Nouns are naturally of the third person.

Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the Sanscrit, the MasoGothic, and almost all the ancient languages, there is in English only a very slight amount of inflection.

1. Here we see six different terminations in the three persons of the two numbers of the Latin.

2. a. We also see the Anglo-Saxon addition of t in the second person singular; b. The identity in the form of the three persons of the plural number in that language; c. The change of að into en in the Old English plural; d. The total absence of plural forms in the Modern English; e. The change of th into s in loveth and loves.

3. The sign of the first person singular is found in one verb only. In the word am (a-m) the m is no part of the original word. It is the sign of the first person singular of the present indicative.

4. The sign of the second person singular is est or st; as, Thou callest.

5. The sign of the third person singular is eth or th, or else es or s; as, He calleth, he loveth; or, He calls, he loves. The first of these forms is now used only in formal discourse. It was once in common use. It is found only in the indicative mode and the present

tense.

6. Through the whole of the plural there are no signs of the persons, or change of form: We call, ye' call, they call.

NUMBERS OF VERBS.

§ 324. Verbs have two numbers, the SINGULAR and the PLURAL, corresponding to the twofold distinction in personal pro

nouns.

As compared with the present plural forms we love, ye love, they love, both the Anglo-Saxon we lufiað, ge lufiað, he lufias, and the Old English we loven, ye loven, they loven, have a peculiar termination for the plural number, which the present language wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural personal characteristic, while the modern English has nothing to