Some of the vowel sounds do not readily combine, as those of e and a in beat. Only one of the elements is sounded. When two vowel letters are thus brought together in a written word, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a Di

GRAPH.

II. Compound Sounds formed by means of three vowel sounds are called TRIPHTHONGS; as in buoy.

When three vowel letters are brought together in a syllable, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a TRIGRAPH.

III. Compound Consonant Sounds are represented by ch in chest, and by j in jest. Ch is t+sh; j is=d+zh. These are compound Sibilants, that of ch being surd, and that of j being sonant.

The analysis of the sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. RUSH'S admirable work, "The Philosophy of the Human Voice." Upon the same grounds upon which orthoepists consider i in fine and u in rude as diphthongal, he contends that several of the vowels are diphthongal; as, for instance, that a in ale, which, upon being prolonged, he asserts, resolves itself into the two sounds of a and e.

RELATIONSHIP

OF

CERTAIN

CONSONANTAL

SOUNDS.

§ 126. 1. Let the sign b represent the single simple sound of th in thin. And, 2. Let the sign represent the single simple sound of th in thine. And, 3. Let the sign σ (Greek Liyua) represent the simple single sound of sh in shine. And, 4. Let the sign (Greek Znra) represent the simple single sound of 2 in azure (French j). And, 5. Let the simple sign K (Greek KаTTа) and the sign y (Greek Tápua) represent two peculiar sounds in the Laplandic, and possibly in some other languages, different from any in English, German, French. Then we have the following relationship:

LENE AND ASPIRATE.

127. Of the sounds just enumerated, p, b, t, d, k, g, s, z, are called LENE; f, v, þ, ð, k, y, o, È, are called ASPIRATE. These terms are used by grammarians; but the term aspirate is thus used in a different sense from what it is when contrasted with the term vocal. P belonging to the first series, and ƒ belonging to the second series, are both surd. P, indeed, is explosive, and ƒ is continuous. But s, however, is continuous, and s, in respect to the difference under consideration, is classed, not with f, the continuous sound, but with p, the explosive one. We have then, also, the following relationship: is to f, so is b

p

to v.

As
As b

On the last two sections, see Professor LATHAM'S work on the English language.

COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY.

PHONETIC ELEMENTS

NOT IN THE LANGUAGE.

§ 128. There are certain phonetic elements in other languages which are not found in the English.

1. Thus the sound of e ferme (close) of the French, which is intermediate to that of a in fate and of e in mete, is not found in English. Its opposite is ouvert (open), as in that of a in fate.

2. The u of the French, ü or y of the Danes, represents a sound intermediate to that of e in mete and oo in book; long, as in the French word flûte; short, as in fût. The nasal un represents a sound not in English.

3. O chiuso, of the Italians, is intermediate to the o in note and the oo in book. The meaning of chiuso is close, in opposition to the open (aperto) sound of o, as in note. This sound is not in the English.

4. The Sanscrit has a vowel r. The short r is pronounced like the consonant r, with a scarcely distinguishable i, and in European texts is usually ri; the long is scarcely to be distinguished from the union of r with a long i.

5. The Sanscrit has another vowel, which is the union of an

7 with r, or a lengthened 7. In the Slavonic language, I and r are considered as vowels.

6. Ch in German, gh in Irish, w in Welsh, represent sounds not found in the English language. The foregoing are only specimens.

PHONETIC

ELEMENTS NOT IN SOME OTHER LAN-
GUAGE S.

§ 129. On the other hand, the English has phonetic elements not found in some other languages. Thus, that of th, as in thine, and th, as in thin, are not found in the French and the German; and those of f, v, and of sh, are not found in the Javanese. The sound of is wanting in the Zend, and that of r is not in the Chinese. These are only specimens.

PECULIARITY OF THE

MAGYAR

LANGUAGE.

§ 130. The Magyar language resolves the vowels into two classes, a, o, u, masculine; and e, i, ö, ü, feminine. A masculine vowel and a feminine vowel are not allowed to meet in one word, not even in a compound term; for if the last syllable of a word have a masculine vowel, the affix must be made to agree with it accordingly.-BOWERING's Poetry of the Magyars.

DIFFERENCE OF QUALITY IN THE SAME

ELEMENT.

§ 131. The same elementary sound, as exhibited by two individuals belonging to different nations, may differ from itself in quality, just as the same musical note differs from itself when produced by a flute and a violin. Both the identity and the diversity are perceived at once. This diversity, if it does not proceed from a difference of physiological structure, such as obtains between the different races of men, is to be accounted for by the early training of the organs, which in time become rigid, and lose the imitative power for fixed habits.

"May I not lay it down as a very probable position, that there is no man on earth who has ears to discriminate, and vocal organs to execute, all the varieties of sound that exist in human language? And if there were such a man, he could not make himself understood but by those equally gifted with himself, and only by word of mouth. For how could he convey to the

mental ear, by means of written signs, sounds which the natural ear never heard before?"-DUPONCEAU, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. i., p. 23.

Having, in this chapter, examined the phonetic elements in their separate existence, we are prepared, in the next chapter, to examine them in their combinations with one another.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I.

1. What is the definition of the term Phonology in general, and in its application to the English language?

2. What are the phonetic elements of the English language?

3. How are the sounds which constitute language formed, and by what organs?

4. Which is the principal organ of speech, and to what has its name been applied?

5. Into what two classes are the phonetic elements divided?

6. Give the distinctive characteristics of vocalic sounds.

7. Upon what does the peculiar character of the different vowel sounds depend?

8. Give the distinctive characteristic of consonantal sounds, and state why they are so called.

9. To what class of sounds is the word articulate strictly applicable, and to what sounds is it also in use applied.

10. Describe the proper mode of analyzing the sounds of which words and syllables are composed, and give examples of this mode.

11. Explain the meaning of the terms Surd and Sonant, and mention sounds to which they are severally applied.

12. Explain the meaning of the terms Continuous and Explosive, and mention the sounds to which they are usually applied.

13. Give the headings of each division in the table.

14. Give the phonetic elements under each heading.

15. Give the summation of the surd and sonant elements.

16. Give the summation of the explosive amd continuous elements.

17. Give the classification of the elementary consonant sounds according to their organic production.

18. Give the three classes of compound sounds.

19. Enumerate certain phonetic elements which are not in the English language.

20. Enumerate certain phonetic elements found in the English, but not found in some other languages.

21. Explain what is meant by difference of quality in the same element. 22. State the opinion of Duponceau in respect to varieties of sound.

CHAPTER II.

THE PHONETIC ELEMENTS IN COMBINATION.

PRONOUNCEABLE COMBINATIONS.

§ 132. 1. The Vowel elements in combination with one another, whether they coalesce, as in diphthongs, or continue separate, are easily pronounced, as oi in voice, ia in Indian.

2. The Vowel elements, in combination with the consonantal elements, either simple or compound, are easily pronounced, as Atlas, Chester.

3. The Consonantal elements, in combination with one another, are some of them pronounced easily, some with difficulty, while some of them can not be pronounced at all. Thus the sound of blends easily in the pronunciation with any other consonantal element which precedes it, as in bra, tra. But the sound of t does not easily blend with that of c in the word facts, but requires an effort of the organs. And the sound of d can not be made to blend with that of p in the combination apd. See § 134.

UNPRONOUNCEABLE COMBINATIONS.

§ 133. Two consonantal elements, the one marked SURD in the table, the other SONANT, can not be pronounced in the same syllable. See Table of Elementary Sounds, § 118.

Thus, if you attempt to pronounce the combination sofd, in which there is a surd and a sonant, you will find it impossible. The same will be true of any like combination. The organs are thrown into a condition by pronouncing the one element which will not allow them immediately to pronounce the other.

A CHANGE OF ELEMENTS IN PRONUNCIATION.

§ 134. In attempting to pronounce, in one syllable, a surd and a sonant, either the surd will become a sonant, or the sonant will become a surd. Thus, in the pronunciation of sofd,