on which many of their outward peculiarities are grounded. The doctrine of the internal light is found in the views of Christ given by St. John, who in the first chapter of his gospel describes Christ -the Eternal Logos-as the "life" and "light of men,"“the true light," "the light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world." They believe that to every man is given measure of the light of the Son of God, a measure of the grace of the Holy Spirit, by which he invites, calls, exhorts, and strives, with every man, in order to save him, which light or grace, as it is received, and not resisted, works the salvation of all, even of those who are ignorant of Adam's fall, and of the death of Christ, by bringing them to a sense of their own misery, and to be sharers in the sufferings of Christ inwardly; and by making them partakers of His resurrection, in becoming holy, pure, and righteous, and recovered out of their sins.

The application of the leading doctrine of the "internal light" is that the Holy Spirit alone maketh wise unto salvation, illuminating the mind with true spiritual knowledge of the deep things of God. They do not consider "human learning" essential to a minister of the gospel. They also believe that women as well as men are called to preach the gospel. They reject the ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's supper. They believe that the ministering of oaths is contrary to Christ's command, "Swear not at all.” They refuse to pay tithes, and they protest against war. They are plain in their dress, and also use plain language; for all these things they give Scriptural reasons.

German Catholics.

German Catholics is the name of a religious sect which sprang up in Germany in the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church They form independent congregations, and most commonly style themselves Christian Catholics. They stand upon Protestant ground; but neither in theory nor practice are they Protestants, nor do they wish to be accounted such.

In 1844, bishop Arnoldi appointed a special pilgrimage and service to the exhibition of the holy coat at Treves, to be preceded by confession and remission of sins. Ronge addressed a letter to bishop Arnoldi in which he characterized the exhibition of the coat as idolatry. This found a response in the minds of many Catholics, and was also approved by Protestants. Previous to this J. Czerski, a priest in Posen, had seceded from the Roman Catholic Church, and was about to form a congregation of Christian Apostolic Catholics. Czerski and Ronge were naturally drawn together. Ronge addressed an appeal to the lower orders of the priesthood, calling upon them to use their influence in the pulpit and everywhere to break the power of the court of Rome and priest craft in

general throughout Germany, to set up a national German church independent of Rome, and governed by councils and synods; to abolish auricular confession, the Latin mass and the celibacy of the priests; and to aim at liberty of conscience for all Christians, and perfect freedom for the religious education of children.

The first congregation was formed at Schneidemuhl, and took the name of Christian Catholic. The Holy Scriptures and the Nicene creed were held to be the only standards of Christian faith. This confession served many other congregations, though some of them modified it in various ways. In one year more than 100 congregations were in existence. The confession of faith of the congregation at Breslau was drawn up by Ronge, who had been chosen preacher. This confession departed from the doctrine and ritual of the Roman Catholic Church. The Scriptures was laid down to be the only rule of faith, and no external authority can be allowed to interfere with the free interpretation of it. The essentials of belief were restricted to a few doctrines; belief in God as the Creator and Governor of the world, and the Father of all men; in Christ as the Savior, in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian church, the forgiveness of sins, and eternal life. Baptism and the Lord's supper were held to be the only sacraments. Confirmation was retained, but most of the rites peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church were given up.

The need of concert being felt, a council of German Catholics was held at Leipsic, March 22, 1845, and attended by deputies from many of the leading congregations, others signifying their willingness to abide by the decisions of the council. The principles of the Breslau confession were mostly adopted. The interpretation of Scripture, the only source of Christian belief, was left to the free exercise of reason, actuated by the Christian ideas. Forms of worship were to be adapted to the requirements of time and place. The council declared in favor of the presbyterial and synodal form of government. The congregations were to elect their own clergy. The effect of this union increased the number of congregations, which by the end of 1845 amounted to about 300. Numbers of leading Catholics joined the movement. Individual Protestant clergymen went over to the body.

But German Catholicism soon found enemies both within and without. Conservative Protestants suspected it to be dangerous to the welfare of the church and state. It was, however, more internal disagreements than state persecutions that checked its prosperity. There was a wide discrepancy between the views of Czerski and those of Ronge. Czerski and his adherents held closely to the doctrines and ritual of Rome. Ronge's party approached nearer to the Rationalists, occupying themselves with the free-thinking theories. This disagreement discouraged the spread of the movement. When the second council was held in Berlin, in 1847, the interest had greatly declined.

Huguenots.

Huguenots is the name formerly given in France to the adherents of the Reformation which movement commenced almost simultaneously in France and Germany. One of the most eminent names in the early history of French Protestantism is that of Farel, and one of the first supporters of its cause was Margaret of Valois, queen of Navarre, the sister of Francis I. Subsequently, in the time of Calvin, many of the nobles and middle classes embraced the reformed religion. Francis I., however, opposed it with great severity, and caused many to be burned as heretics. Under Francis II. a chamber was established in each parliament for the punishment of Protestants, and executions, confiscations, and banishments were common in all parts of the kingdom. The Protestants took up arms against the government, choosing Louis I. prince of Bourbon Conde, for their leader. On February 1, 1560, in a meeting in Nantes, they resolved to petition the king for freedom of religion, and for the removal of the Guises, and in the event of his refusal, to seize the king's person, and proclaim Conde governor-general of the kingdom. But the court, being apprised of the conspiracy, fled from Blois to Amboise, and the duke of Guise was appointed governor-general. Some bands of Protestants approached Amboise with weapons in their hands, but they were easily defeated and taken; 1200 died by the hand of the executioner. The edict of Romorantin, in May, 1560, took the prosecution of the Protestants out of the hands of the Parliament, and gave it into those of the bishops. While the Guises plotted the death of the Protestant leaders, Charles IX. ascended the throne, not yet of age; and the queen mother, Catharine de Medici, having removed the Guises from the helm of the state, was compelled to seek the support of the Protestants against them and their party. In July, 1561, appeared an edict which freed the Huguenots from the penalty of death. For the complete termination of strife the court opened a religious conference at Poissy on September 3rd. The effect of the discussion was to unite and embolden the Huguenots, with whom the Guises forced Catharine into closer alliance. On January 17th, 1562, appeared an edict, giving noblemen the right of the free exercise of their religion on their own estates.

On March 1,1562, a company of Protestants met in a barn at Vasay for religious exercises. They were attacked and many of them were massacred by the followers of the duke of Guise. The Guises took possession of the person of the king, and of his mother, and proclaimed the Protestants rebels. The duke of Guise marched on Orleans, but was assassinated in his camp, February 18, 1563. Hereupon the queen-mother hastened to conclude the peace of Amboise on March 19, by which the Huguenots were allowed the free exercise of their religion, except in certain districts and towns. Catharine, however, hated the new faith, and formed

a close alliance with the Spaniards for the extirpation of heresy, and retrenched the new liberties of the Protestants.

The Protestants having received assistance in troops from Germany, and in money and artillery from England, began the third religious war. But on March 13, 1569, they were defeated. These misfortunes greatly dispirited the Protestants. Fresh re-inforcements from England, Switzerland, and Germany enabled Coligny to take Nimes in 1569, and to relieve Rochell, whilst Lanoue obtained a victory over the royal troops, at Lucon. Catharine and her son now sought for peace, to which the Protestants, weary of the hard contest, consented. The treaty, concluded August 8, 1570, gave to the Protestants an amnesty, the free exercise of their religion everywhere except in Paris, and the possession of a number of places of security.

Catharine having failed to overthrow the Huguenots in the open field, sought to accomplish her object by treachery, and by a general massacre of Protestants on St. Bartholomew's day in 1572. The Huguenots flew to arms, and obtained the free exercise of their religion and liberty of conscience. The duke of Alencon, the youngest son of Catharine, from political motives, united with the Protestants in opposition to the government of the queenmother and the Guises. Then Catharine incited her third son, Henry III., who had now succeeded to the throne, to immediately recommence hostilities against the Protestants. Contrary to all expectation, the cause of the Huguenots was in the highest degree prosperous during the year 1575. Peace was concluded on May 8, by which the Huguenots were freed from all restrictions in the exercise of their religion. The king also paid their German auxiliaries.

After a comparatively long interval of repose, lasting till 1584, Henry of Navarre became heir to the throne of France. Hereupon, Henry, duke of Guise, entered into an alliance with Spain and the pope for the extirpation of heresy, and began hostilities against the Protestants; the king declared all the privileges of the Protestants to be forfeited. The Huguenots obtaining troops from Germany and money from England, entered on the war; Henry of Navarre commanded the Protestant army. The duke of Guise grasped the whole power of the state. But his design with regard to the throne was evident; so the king caused him and his brother, the cardinal, to be assassinated in September, 1588. In less than a year, the king was himself assassinated by a monk, and Henry of Navarre succeeded to the throne and signed the famous Edict of Nantes, April 13, 1598, by which the rights of the Protestants were enlarged and established.

Under the reign of Henry IV. the Huguenots lived in tranquility. But during the minority of Louis XIII. and Mary de Medici, the queen of Henry IV. assumed the reigns of government. The independence of the Protestants stood in the way of a

court bent upon absolutism. In June, 1617, a royal edict commanded the entire suppression of the Protestant church, but the provincial court at Pau refused to register the edict, and the matter lay over till 1620, when the Jesuits and the king carried the edict into full effect by force of arms. The Protestants throughout all France prepared to meet the issue, but they were defeated.

When Louis became superstitious in his old age, he gradually deprived the Huguenots of their equal civil rights. Bodies of troops accompanied by monks, passed through the southern provinces, compelling the inhabitants to renounce their religion, demolishing the places of worship, and putting to death the preachers. Hundreds of thousands of Protestants fled to Switzerland, the Netherlands, England and Germany. From the vicinity of Nimes, thousands betook themselves to the mountains of the Cevennes. Among these a fanatical enthusiasm displayed itself. France had lost more than a million of her most active, enterprising, and industrious citizens. She still had about two millions who continued to adhere to the Protestant religion.

The partial repose which the Protestants enjoyed for more than ten years was attended by a revival of their worship. In 1724, Louis XV., instigated by the Jesuits, issued a severe edict against them. The spirit of the age had begun to be opposed to persecution and it was not executed. An edict of 1752 declared marriages and baptisms by Protestant ministers to be null, and required the repetition of them by the Roman Catholic clergy. But when many began again to flee from the country, the disgust of the Roman Catholics themselves was so much excited that the court recalled the edict. In 1789 Louis XVI. declared the Protestant marriages and bapitsms to be valid, and restored to Protestants equal civil rights, except that they might not be advanced to public offices and dignities. The national assembly in 1790 passed a decree for the restitution of all the properties of non-Catholics confiscated since Louis XIV. The code gave Protestants in France equal civil and political rights with Roman Catholics. The charter granted by the Bourbons acknowledged the freedom of Protestant worship, and the state pledged itself for the maintenance of the pastors. After the revolution of July, 1830, the reformed charter of France proclaimed universal freedom of conscience and of worship. The Reformed and Lutheran pastors receive small salaries from the state. These churches, since 1872, hold their synods and general assemblies.

Lutheran Church.

Lutheranism is the prevailing form of Protestantism in Saxony, Hanover, and the greater part of northern Germany, as well as in Wurtemberg; it also prevails to a considerable extent in other parts of Germany. It is the national religion of Denmark, Sweden, and