2. Physical Geography-Geographical box.

In all investigations the instructor should seize every opportunity to turn the conversation on useful subjects. But, among those which may engage the attention of the young, geography is one of the most suitable; for it is addressed to the senses and memory as much as to the reflective powers.

The child is taught the points of the compass relatively, first, to the position of the room in which he is, and, then, to the different parts of the house. He may, afterwards, when he is out of doors, ascertain the geographical direction of the streets, the course of the river, and the relative positions of different buildings. But, before the denominations of east, west, north, and south, are mentioned to him, he should be told of the rotundity of the earth as well as of its double rotary motion, and be made to observe the direction of the sun, its successive positions in the heavens-in the morning, at noon, and in the evening. These terms, arising out of the want which he has of them, will be clear, and easily retained. How many young people are there who, for want of this previous practical information, see in the cardinal points only the four sides of a map !

The geographical terms expressive of the various natural subdivisions and physical characteristics of land and water can never be defined so as to give children clear and accurate ideas of the things which they represent. They are best explained in the presence of the things themselves. But as many of these objects cannot be seen in their natural state, their place might be supplied by a small model in relief of an imaginary portion of the earth exhibiting its principal features.

The construction of such a model presents no difficulty: the author, applying to the education of his own children most of the suggestions thrown out in these pages, has made one himself for their use. A lake, a Mediterranean sea, bays, &c., are carved out of wood; and mountains, rocks, banks of rivers, and undulations of the ground are made with putty; the whole is painted in oil of the natural colour of the objects represented,—white for the snowy peaks, green for the valleys, &c. This model fits in a box one foot square by 24 inches in depth, of which it occupies the half; the inside is painted a light bluish green, to imitate the colour of the sea.

At the time of using this box it is half filled with water, which,

coming in contact with the sides of the model and passing under it, produces peninsulas, bays, harbours, creeks, lakes, &c. ; and thus gives a faithful and most vivid representation of the physical character of the terrestrial and aqueous globe. To add to the usefulness of this apparatus, a magnetic needle is placed on a pivot fixed on one of the mountains, thus indicating the relative geographical position of every spot.

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We need scarcely say that a geographical lesson founded on these elements is highly instructive and entertaining to young children. Their natural curiosity is excited at the sight of this model; and they anxiously expect any information which the instructor is about to impart to them on the physical constitution of the globe, and the natural phenomena connected with its existence. They may be called upon to define in their own words all the terms, of which they have the sensible signification before their eyes; they see that an island is the counterpart of a lake a cape, of a bay; an isthmus, of a strait: guided by the needle, they may be made to state the relative position of different places, as well as the directions of streams and chains of mountains in reference to the points of the compass. A survey of this fac-simile will give them an idea of the innumerable beauties of the terrestrial surface; it will bring to their notice its verdant plains, its diversified hills, its winding rivers, expanding as they run down to the sea, which spreads its immense sheet over more than half the globe. They may be told of the indispensable agency of water towards the fertility of the earth, the existence of man, the arts of life, and international communication; they may be told of navigation in modern and ancient times, of the mariner's compass and the polar star, of sailing and steam vessels, of maritime discoveries, of celebrated navigators and travellers, and of many other interesting subjects, which would be called to mind by the sight of land and water.

Children take a lively pleasure in travelling, with the end of a pointer, over this Lilliputian world, and naming each place as they journey on; sometimes following down a river from its source to its mouth, or seeking a defile in a mountain to pass into the valley at the other side; sometimes resting on a tableland, or ascending a peak ; at other times, going along the coasts over strands and cliffs, standing on a promontory, or venturing on a sand-bank; now and then shouting with joy at the discovery of a volcano, a cavern, a grotto, a cascade, or a cataract. All these objects will recall to the mind of an instructor conversant

with the wonders of our planet, the most remarkable among their corresponding realities: the occasional mention of them, at the moment when his young hearers' attention is rivetted on the subject, could not fail to be eagerly received. These geographical topics will by an immediate connection turn the conversation on geological and atmospheric inquiries, on the structure of the earth, and the distribution of organic life over its surface ; its mines of coal, salt, metals, and diamonds; its various strata and fossil remains; on tides and winds, hot and mineral springs, water-spouts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and a thousand other natural phenomena. Thus will they, in an impressive manner, become rapidly and thoroughly acquainted with the elements of physical geography and the great laws of nature, and be excited, at their entrance upon these studies, by the desire of proceeding farther.

When a child has been familiarised with these elements, his next step will consist in being made acquainted with the nature of maps, that he may early know how to use them, and be induced to refer to them in the course of his reading. This he will accomplish most effectually by constructing some himself, under the guidance of his instructor. If he has been early encouraged

to sketch from nature, he will easily draw with reference to the points of the compass the plan or map of the room in which he studies, and afterwards that of the premises and grounds surrounding the house in which he lives. This will enable him the better to understand the relations which maps bear to the reality, and consequently to refer to them with the more profit.

After he has executed several maps of particular places, he may undertake the tracing of whole countries. A black globe of two feet in diameter, at the least, made so as to admit of delineations in chalk, would considerably facilitate this object and enable him to solve many geographical questions. A skilful teacher will see at once all the advantages which could be derived from such a globe.

The clear notions of number and measures which the child may, by this time, have acquired will facilitate his further progress in the study of geography, by enabling him to conceive rightly the various numerical considerations which occur as part of that science, such as the superficies of the earth, the extent of countries, the relative distance of places, the amount of population, the length of rivers, the height of mountains, the measure of degrees, and others.

3. Political Geography; Globe with National Flags.

Equal in importance to a knowledge of the physical constitution of our globe is an acquaintance with the various races of men who cover its surface, and the numerous political communities into which they are formed. A complete course of geography should comprise these different subjects of consideration. When children have clear notions of the extent, form, composition, and external configuration of the earth, they may with profit be told of the different countries into which it has been subdivided, and be informed of their resources, and of every thing relating to the nations by which they are inhabited. This information constitutes political geography, which is the foundation of political science; for, unless we know the condition of a country and its inhabitants, we cannot reason correctly on their wants, customs, and means of prosperity.

The elements of the condition of a country are either natural or artificial. The natural elements are its geographical position, its climate, its boundaries, its coast-line, the character of its rivers, and the quality of its soil, its mineral, vegetable, or animal productions, and lastly, its population; the artificial elements consist of the civil and political institutions of the people, their agriculture, manufacture, and commerce; their progress in the arts and sciences; their language, literature, religion, and mode of life. The attention of the learners should be directed to all these subjects in turn, as circumstances afford opportunities of entering upon them. They should, especially, be shown how the natural elements of a country, by determining the character and peculiar energies of the people, influence their industrial, social, moral, and intellectual habits.

As an introduction to the first elements of political geography we would recommend the use of a globe containing only the terrestrial and aqueous configuration of the earth, with the national boundaries of the different countries and an indication of their capitals. The child, who has to learn these first notions, can, with this globe, easily attend to them without the confusion which, in using the ordinary maps and globes, arises from the numerous names and lines of rivers with which they are covered, and which are not needed at the outset. But to render this first study more impressive and more interesting, we connect it with another branch of information, which, although most useful

through life, has been totally overlooked in the education of youth. We allude to those emblems which, floating in the breeze, proclaim all over the globe the existence and power of the nations which they represent.

An acquaintance with national flags is indispensable to naval and military men, and useful to all the members of a commercial community; for they serve to distinguish the different nations in their political, military, and commercial relations. The distinctive flags of the numerous ships which crowd our harbours and docks are to him who is acquainted with them the source of much valuable information. They exhibit in one view our commercial intercourse with foreign nations; they lead the mind to an inquiry into the nature of our imports and exports, and hence into an investigation of our agricultural and manufacturing produce.

The child, having been told the names of the nations to which the flags belong, is desired to place these in the capitals of the countries to which they belong, and which are indicated by small holes into which the ends of the flag-staffs are made to fit. It may be easily conceived how amusing and instructive he will find the occupation of planting these standards in their proper places. When they have been distributed all over the globe, the pleasing effect which their variegated colours and their different emblems present to his eye powerfully fixes his attention: he sees at one glance, and in a striking manner, the relative positions of all nations, and their various possessions abroad.

In order to extend still farther the utility of this geographical apparatus, the size of the flags should vary with the degree of political power of each nation, and the length of the staffs with the extent of territory of each country. On the staffs may be inscribed the amount of population of the respective countries, their superficies in square miles, and the names of their capitals. In addition to these fundamental notions, the instructor could, now and then, as any flag engages the attention of his young pupils, associate with it much useful information concerning the people to whom it belongs. He may speak of their mode of government, their customs, national character, and degree of civilisation; of the pursuits in which they are most remarkable, and the discoveries and inventions with which they have benefited humanity; of their standard works, and the advantages to be derived from a knowledge of their language.

With this apparatus, and in the case especially of young persons of the upper ranks, a well-informed teacher may highly