21 admire most, the simplicity or the efficiency of the means which the infinitely-wise Creator employs for the attainment of His ends.

Man, under the influence of the mental dispositions with which he has been endowed, in perfect adaptation to his physical constitution, has only used his privilege, as a perfectible being, in modifying and extending by analogy his natural powers of expression according as the necessities of his social relations required, he instinctively and gradually transformed his simple exclamations into conventional signs expressive of his ideas and feelings. His intellectual organisation equally proves the intention of his Maker in this respect; for, if it be admitted that he always thought, it must also be granted that, as a social and communicative being, he always wished to speak. The faculty of thinking is so closely connected with that of communicating thoughts, that one can hardly be conceived separate from the other.

So powerfully is man prompted by his nature to use his vocal powers for the communication of thought, that no tribe has yet been known, however few in number, however rude in condition, who did not possess an articulate language adapted to all the purposes and wants of their particular mode of life. The faculty of speech is, indeed, an essential attribute and one of the most remarkable characteristics of the human constitution: hence the justness of the epithet μepo (articulate speaking) given to man by Homer.

The peculiar conformation of the vocal organs in almost all the lower animals, shows that they are not intended to perform the same functions as those of man. Some species among the brute creation can produce a few vocal sounds and articulations; but none are enabled to form them all, being destitute of the powers of imitation, analogy, and will, by which, as shall subsequently be shown, the elements of the articulate language are determined. This inferiority of organisation, which is an obstacle to their possessing a regular language (for we cannot give to their cries the name of language), coincides with another circumstance of their physical constitution, in proving that they were not intended by nature to be communicative: their features do not exhibit that ever-changing expression of countenance which characterises the human face; they, with rare exception, neither shed tears, laugh, nor gesticulate; in a word, they give no external indication of inward thoughts. Their physical condition is consistent with their want of the moral and mental

faculties which constitute the basis of social intercourse. They seldom sympathise with their fellows, and never feel curiosity to inquire into their concerns. They do not reflect, because they do not possess the moral power, the will, by which attention is directed to the impressions made on the brain: taking no notice of those impressions, or ideas, they retain no consciousness of them; and the evanescence of the ideas precluding the possibility of their communication, no language is consequently needed.

Most of the lower animals have a voice in common with us, and, in their cries, instinctively produce inarticulate sounds; but articulate language, or speech, is the privilege of man ; and the vocal organs, by which it is effected, must be cultivated: for, although their flexibility and the consequent distinctness of the articulations, as well as the clearness and the power of the voice greatly depend on their favourable conformation; nevertheless education may, to a great extent, contribute to these qualities, or remedy natural defects. The exercises which call them into activity must not be neglected, as the proper cultivation of the vocal powers contributes its share to the perfect harmony of all the physical faculties.

As branches of physical education, oral reading, recitation, and singing may be had recourse to, either to cultivate the hearing and the vocal faculty, or to strengthen the lungs and chest. In French and in Italian, these exercises would admirably answer this purpose, because the fulness of the sounds and the great compass of the notes would, if loudly uttered, give melody and extension to the voice, as well as elasticity and expansion to the lungs. A judicious exercise of these organs contributes, more than people are generally aware, to a healthy state of the constitution. "Reading aloud," says Dr. A. Combe, "is extremely useful in developing and giving tone to the organs of respiration, and to the general system.' Pliny recommends it as a means of facilitating digestion and improving the chest.

The celebrated Cuvier often declared that he was certain he would have fallen a victim to consumption, had he not had the good fortune to be appointed to a professorship, in which he found the delivery of lectures to a large audience a most beneficial exercise for his lungs. It has been remarked that the Germans are seldom affected with consumptive diseases: this is commonly attributed to the strength which their lungs acquire, by being Elements of Physiology.

frequently exercised in vocal music; for, among them, this constitutes an essential part of education.

4. The Muscular and Locomotive Organs.

So irresistible is the natural impulse which prompts to action the muscles and limbs, that, in health, a positive pleasure arises from their activity, although it may be accompanied with fatigue and danger, as happens in many gymnastic exercises and fieldsports their inactivity is, on the contrary, a cause of much uneasiness. Their action, when subservient to any particular purpose, is under the control of the will; it is subject to the sensitive faculties, and receives from them its impulse and direction; for the voluntary movements which the muscular and locomotive organs execute are a consequence of our sensations, and of the judgments which we form from them. A judicious training of these organs would tend considerably to improve the human frame. Grace of deportment, elegance of manners, ease of motion, strength, activity, dexterity, and all that is attractive and pleasing in the physical nature of man depend, in a great measure, on well-directed muscular exercise.

Gymnastic exercises afford the most effective means of cultivating and improving the muscular system and the locomotive organs. These exercises, and all sports which demand physical activity, call the muscles and bones into action, strengthen the limbs, and impart a healthy tone to the organs: under their influence the blood circulates freely, the respiration is quickened, the digestion becomes active, the nervous system is invigorated, and the redundant fluids are driven off by perspiration. But, as over-exertion of the muscles might cause accidents, or check the growth of young people, gymnastics should be practised only under the guidance of a person acquainted with anatomy; and, if judiciously conducted, they will keep up the harmony which nature has diffused through the human frame, or re-establish it when interrupted by neglect or other causes.

Gymnastic exercises should, whenever practicable, be carried on in the open air; their kind and duration should always be adapted to the particular constitution of children, who should not be allowed to attempt exertions beyond their strength. Such exercises as are unnatural, or at variance with the design of bodily organisation, must be carefully avoided. Nature is the best guide in every pursuit. Before adopting any exercise, we should consider if it be consistent with the mode of action assigned by the Creator to the physical functions.

In a political point of view, governments would do well to give every encouragement to this branch of hygiene; for it is important to a state to possess an active and vigorous population. It was, among the Greeks and the Romans, the basis of national education. The great attention which they paid to it, contributed not a little to the surprising success of their arms. The Greeks, especially, were, as a nation, physically and intellectually, a superior race of men; and there is reason to believe, that their unrivalled attention to physical education was highly influential in producing this result.

Gymnastics embrace all the accomplishments of which the organs of voluntary motion are the instruments, and which may be pursued as relaxation from mental labour. Such exercises are not destitute of moral influence; for they generate courage, perseverance, self-control; and, in giving the power, they foster a disposition and excite a desire to assist our fellow-creatures in danger. Nor is gymnastic training destitute of mental action; for, although the exercises of the muscles and limbs chiefly tend to physical improvement, the mechanical operations in which these are engaged cannot, in the commencement, be performed independently of attention, memory, judgment, and imagination.

SECT. V. PHYSICAL ACQUIREMENTS.

The gymnastic exercises, accomplishments, sports, and useful arts, which are suitable for general adoption, and which may enter into a complete course of physical education, are the following:

Females, who are forbidden to indulge in many of these occupations, may resort to callisthenics, and to arts suitable to them, such as plain and fancy needlework, millinery, dress-making, artificial flower-making, and other arts which more particularly appertain to their sex.

All the above exercises and acquirements should not be indiscriminately pursued; and, although they are generally beneficial, yet, as they have each their special sphere of physical improvement, perseverance in any of them should be regulated by the particular circumstances of the individual. Among the numerous useful arts of life, we have here mentioned only a few, such as all classes of people may practise for relaxation from intellectual occupations. In making a selection, the preference should be given to those which favour most the cultivation of attention, demand most dexterity, are most consistent with future pursuits, and present the greatest chance of utility in after-life.

Young persons should be induced to attend to manual occupations and useful arts, which might alternate with mental pursuits; such occupations and arts would not only be to them a never-failing source of amusement, but would give them early in life a command of their hands, and would usefully exercise their organs of sense. The excellence at which mere children often arrive in mechanical operations and in some of the fine arts, sufficiently proves the early natural capabilities of the physical powers, and the law of nature, in regard to the order of physical and intellectual education.

Locke and J. J. Rousseau have recommended mechanical pursuits, the first as a substitute for "the useless and dangerous pastimes in fashion;" the second as a provision against adversity. Without contemning these motives, which are founded on reason, we take other grounds; we advocate such pursuits as necessary accompaniments to, and powerful means of intellectual education, and as the great instruments of civilisation. Labour and industry are for nations the safest means of prosperity, as they are for individuals the purest sources of property and independence. Hence the industrial element should enter more largely than it usually does in primary education.