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SECT. VIII.

The Origin or Causes of equivocal Words.

OW, that we may become more skilful in guarding ourselves and others against the dangers of miitake which may arife from equivocal words, it may not be amifs to conclude this chapter with a fhort account of the various ways or means whereby a word. changes its fignification, or acquires any new fenfe, and thus becomes equivocal, especially if it keeps its old fenfe alfo.

1. MERE chance fometimes gives the fame word different fenfes; as the word light fignifies a body. that is not heavy; and it alfo fignifies the effect of fun-beams, or the medium whereby we fee objects: this is merely accidental, for there feems to be no connection between these two fenfes, nor any reason for them.

2. Error and mistake is another occafion of giving. various fenfes to the fame word; as when different perfons read the names of priest, bifhop, church, eafter, &c. in the New Teftament, they affix different ideas to them, for want of acquaintance with the true meaning of the facred writer; though it must be confeffed, thefe various fenfes, which might arife at firft from honeft mistake, may be culpably fupported and propaga ted by intereft, ambition, prejudice, and a party-fpirit on any fide.

3. Time and cuftom alters the meaning of words. Knave heretofore fignified a diligent fervant (Gnavus;) and a villain was a nearer tenant to the lord of the manor (Villicus;) but now both thefe words carry an idea of wickednefs and reproach to them. A ballad once signified a folemn and facred fong, as well as one that is trivial, when Solomon's Song was called the ballad of ballads; but now it is applied to nothing but trifling verfe, or comical fubjects.

4. Words change their fenfe by figures and meta

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phors, which are derived from fome real anology or refemblance betweeen feveral things; as when wings and flight are applied to riches, it signifies only, that the owner may as easily lofe them, as he would lofe a bird who flew away with wings.

And I think, under this head, we may rank thofe words, which signify different ideas, by a fort of an unaccountable far-fetcht analogy, or diftant resemblance that fancy has introduced between one thing and another; as when we fay, the meat is green, when it is half-roafted: we fpeak of airing linen by the fire, when we mean drying or warming it: we call for round coals for the chimney, when we mean large square ones and we talk of the wing of a rabbit when we mean the fore-leg: the true reafon of these appellations we leave to the critics.

5. Words alfo change their fenfe by the special occasion of using them, the peculiar manner of pronounciation, the found of the voice, the motion of the face, or geftures of the body; fo when an angry mafter says to his fervant, it is bravely done, or you are a fine gentleman, he means juft the contrary; namely, it is very ill done; you are a forry fellow: it is one way of giving a fevere reproach, for the words are spoken by way of farcasm or irony.

6. Words are applied to various fenfes, by new ideas appearing or arising faster than new words are framed. So when gun-powder was found out, the word powder, which before signified only duft, was made then to signify that mixture or composition of nitre, charcoal, &c. And the name canon, which before signified a law, or a rule, is now alfo given to a great gun, which gives laws to nations. So foot-boys, who had frequently the common name of Jack given them, were kept to turn the fpit, or to pull of their master's boots; but when inftruments were invented for both these fervices, they were both called jacks, though one was of iron, the other of wood, and very different in their form.

7. Words alter their fignifications according to the ideas of the various perfons, fects, or parties who use them, as we have hinted before; fo when a papist uses the word heretics, he generally means the protestants;

when a proteftant ufes the word, he means any perfons who were wilfully (and perhaps contentioufly) obftinate in fundamental errors. When a Jew fpeaks of the true religion, he means the inftitution of Mofes ; when a Turk mentions it, he intends the doctrine of Mahomet but when a Chriftian makes ufe of it, he defigns to fignify Chriftianity, or the truths and precepts of the gospel.

8. Words have different fignifications according to the book, writing, or difcourfe in which they stand. So in a treatise of anatomy, a foot fignifies that member in the body of man: But in a book of geometry or menfuration, it fignifies twelve inches.

If I had room to exemplify moft of thefe particulars in one fingle word, I know not where to chufe a fitter than the word found, which feems (as it were) by chance, to fignify three diftinct ideas, (viz.) healthy (from fanus) as a found body; noife, (from fonus) as a thrill found and to found the fea (perhaps from the French fonde, a probe, or an inftrument to find the depth of water.) From these three, which I may call original fenfes, various derivative fenfes arife; as found fleep, found lungs, found wind and limb, a found heart, a found mind, found doctrine, a found divine, found reafon, a found cafe, found timber, a found reproof, to beat one foundly, to found one's meaning, or inclination, and a found or narrow fea; turn all these into Latin, and the variety will appear plain.

I confefs, fome few of thefe which I have mentioned as the different fprings of equivocal words, may be reduced in fome cafes to the fame original: but it must alfo be granted, that there may be other ways besides thefe whereby a word comes to extend its fignification, to include various ideas, and become equivocal. And though it is the bufinefs of a grammarian to purfue thefe remarks with more variety and particularity, yet it is also the work of a logician to give notice of these things, left darkness, confufion and perplexity be brought into our conceptions by the means of words, and thence our judgments and reasonings become er

roneous.

CHAP. V.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS RELATING TO OUR IDEAS.

Direction I. TURNISH yourselves with a rich variety of ideas; acquaint yourfelves with things ancient and modern; things natural, civil and religious; things domeftic and national; things of your native land, and of foreign countries; things prefent, past and future; and above all, be well acquainted with God and yourfelves; learn animal nature, and the workings of your own spirits.

Such a general acquaintance with things will be of very great advantage.

The firft benefit of it is this; it will affift the use of reason in all its following operations; it will teach you to judge of things aright, to argue justly, and methodise your thoughts with accuracy. When you fhall find feveral things a-kin to each other, and several different from each other, agreeing in fome part of their idea, and difagreeing in other parts, you will range your ideas in better order, you will be more eafily led into a diftinct knowledge of things, and will obtain a rich ftore of proper thoughts and arguments upon all occafions.

You will tell me perhaps, that you defign the study of the law or divinity; and what good can natural philofophy or mathematics do you, or any other fcience, not directly fubordinate to your chief defign? but let it be confidered, that all fciences have a fort of mutual connection; and knowledge of all kinds fit the mind to reafon and judge better concerning any particular fubject. I have known a judge upon the bench betray his ignorance, and appear a little confused in his fentiments about a cafe of suspected murder brought before him, for want of fome acquaintance with animal nature and philofophy.

Another benefit of it is this: fuch a large and general acquaintance with things will fecure you from perpetual admirations and furprizes, and guard you against that weakness of ignorant perfons, who have

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never feen any thing beyond the confines of their own dwelling, and therefore they wonder at almost every thing they fee; every thing beyond the smoke of their own chimney, and reach of their own windows, is new and strange to them.

A third benefit of fuch an universal acquaintance with things, is this; it will keep you from being too pofitive and dogmatical, from an excefs of credulity and unbelief, that is, a readiness to believe, or to deny every thing at first hearing; when you fhall have of ten feen, that strange and uncommon things, which often seemed incredible, are found to be true; and things very commonly received have been found false.

The way of attaining fuch an extensive treasure of ideas, is, with diligence to apply yourself to read the best books, converfe with the most knowing and the wifeft of men, and endeavour to improve by every perfon in whofe company you are; fuffer no hour to pafs away in a lazy idlenefs, and impertinent chattering or useless trifles: vifit other cities and countries, when you have feen your own, under the care of one who can teach you to profit by travelling, and to make wife obfervations; indulge a little curiofity in feeing the wonders of art and nature; fearch into things yourselves, as well as learn them from others: be acquainted with men as well as books; learn all things as much as you can at first hand; and let as many of your ideas as poffible be the representations of things, and not merely the reprefentations of other men's ideas thus your foul, like fome noble building fhall be richly furnished with original paintings, and not with mere copies.

Direct. II. Use the most proper methods to retain that treasure of ideas which you have acquired; for the mind is ready to let many of them flip, unless some pains and labour be taken to fix them upon the memory.

And more especially let those ideas be laid up and preferved with the greatest care, which are most directly fuited, either to your eternal welfare as a Chriftian, or to your particular station and profeffion in this life; for though the former rule recommends an univerfal acquaintance with things, yet it is but a more general

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