have a center and circumstances: all spirits in their own nature are immortal..

A physical or natural univerfality is when, according to the order and common courfe of nature, a predicate agrees to all the subjects of that kind, though there may be fome accidental and preternatural exceptions; as, all men ufe words to exprefs their thoughts, yet dumb perfons are excepted, for they cannot fpeak. beafts have four feet, yet there may be fome monsters with five; or maimed, who have but three.

A moral univerfality is when the predicate agrees to the greatest part of the particulars which are contained under the univerfal fubject; as, all negroes are ftupid creatures: all men are governed by affection rather than by reafon all the old Romans loved their country: and the fcripture uses this language, when St. Paul tells us, the Cretes are always liars.

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Now it is evident, that a fpecial or singular conclusion cannot be inferred. from a moral univerfality, nor. always and infallibly from a physical one, tho' it may, be always inferred from an univerfality which is metaphysical, without any danger or poffibility of a mistake..

Let it be obferved alfo, that ufually we make little: or no diftinction in common language, between a subject that is physically or metaphysically univerfal.»^

Note 2. An univerfal term is fometimes taken collectively for all its particular ideas united together, and fometimes diftributively, meaning each of them single.

and alone.

Inftances of a collective univerfal are such as thefe ; all these apples will fill a bufhel; all the hours of the night are fufficient for fleep all the rules of grammar over-load the memory. In these propositions it is evident, that the predicate belongs not to the individuals feparately, but to the whole collective idea; for we cannot affirm the fame predicate, if we change the word. all into one or every, we cannot fay one apple, or every apple will fill a bufhel, &c. Now fuch a collective idea, when it becomes the subject of a proposition, ought to be esteemed as one single thing, and this renders the proposition singular or indefinite, as we fhall fhew im-mediately.

A diftributive univerfal will allow the word all to be changed into every, or into one, and by this means is diftinguifhed from a collective.

Inftances of a diftributive universal are the most common on every occasion; as, all men are mortal ; every man is a sinner, &c. But in this fort of universal there is a distribution to be made, which follows in the next remark.

Note 3. When an universal term is taken distributively, fometimes it includes all the individuals contained in its inferior fpecies; as when I fay every sickness has a tendency to death; I mean every individual sicknefs, as well as every kind. But fometimes it includes no more than merely each fpecies or kind; as when the evangelift fays Chrift healed every difeafe, or every difeafe was heated by Chrift; that is, every kind of difeafe. The firit of thefe, logicians call the diftribution of an univerfal in fingula generum the laft is a distribution in genera fingulorum, But either of them joined to the fubject render a proposition univerfal.

Note 4. The univerfality of a fubject is often reftrained by a part of the predicate; as when we fay all men learn wisdom by experience, the univerfal fubject, all men is limited to signify only, all thofe men who learn wifdom. The fcripture also uses this fort of language, when it fpeaks of all men being juftified by the righteoufnefs of one, Rom. v. 18. that is, all men who are juftified obtain it this way.

Obferve here, that not only a metaphysical or na tural, but a moral univerfality alfo is oftentimes to be reftrained by a part of the predicate; as when we say,. all the Dutch are good feamen: all the Italians are subtile politicians; that is, thofe among the Dutch that are feamen are good feamen; and thofe among the Italians who are politicians are fubtle politicians, that is, they are generally fo.

Note 5. The univerfality of a term is many times. reftrained by the particular time, place, circumftance, &c. or the design of the speaker; as if we are in the city of London, and fay, all the weavers went to prefent their petition;, we mean only all the weavers who dwell

in the city. So when it is faid in the gospel, all men did marvel, Mark v. 20. it reaches only to all those men who heard of the miracles of our Saviour.

Here alfo it fhould be observed, that a moral univerfality is reftrained by time, place, and other circum. ftances, as well as a natural; fo that by thefe means the word all sometimes does not extend to a tenth part of those who at first might seem to be included in that word..

One occafion of thefe difficulties and ambiguities, that belong to univerfal propofitions, is the common humour and temper of mankind, who generally have an inclination to magnify their ideas, and to talk roundly and univerfally concerning any thing they fpeak of; which has introduced univerfal terms of fpeech into custom and habit, in all nations and all languages, more than nature or reafon would dictate; yet when this cuftom is introduced, it is not at all im proper to use this fort of language in folemn and facred writings, as well as in familiar difcourfe..

II. Remarks concerning indefinite propofitions.

Note 1. Propofitions carrying in them univerfal forms of expreffion may fonetimes drop the note of univerfality, and become indefinite, and yet retain the fame univerfal fenfe, whether metaphyfical, natural or moral, whether collective or diftributive..

We may give inftances of each of these..

Metaphyfical; as, a circle has a center and circum-ference. Natural; as, beasts have four feet. Moral; as, negroes are ftupid creatures. Collective; as, the apples will fill a bufhel. Diftributive; as, men are mortal.

Note 2. There are many cafes wherein a collective idea is expreffed in a propofition by an indefinite term, and that where it defcribes the nature or quality of the fubject, as well as when it declares fome palt mat-ters of fact; as, fir-trees fet in good order will give a charming profpect; this must fignify a collection of fir-trees, for one makes no profpect. In matters of fact this is more evident and frequent; as the Romans overcame the Gauls: the robbers furrounded the coach:

the wild geefe flew over the Thames in the form of a wedge. All these are collective fubjects..

Note 3. In indefinite propofitions the fubject is often reftrained by the predicate, or by the fpecial time, place, or circumftances, as well as in propofitions which are exprefly univerfal; as the Chineses are ingenious. filk-weavers, that is, thofe Chinefes, which are filkweavers, are ingenious at their work. The ftars appear to us when the twilight is gone. This can figni fy no more than the ftars which are above our horizon. Note 4. All these reftrictions tend to reduce fome indefinite propofitions almoft into particular, as will. appear under the next remarks.

III. Remarks concerning particular propofitions. Note 1. A particular propofition may fometimes be expreffed indefinitely without any note of particularity prefixed to the fubject: as, in times of confufion laws are not executed: men of virtue are difgraced, and murderers escape, that is, fome laws, fome men of virtue, fome murderers: unless we should call this language a moral univerfality, though I think it can hardly extend fo far.

Note 2. The words fome, a few, &c. though they generally denote a proper particularity, yet fometimes they exprefs a collective idea; as fome of the enemies beiet the general around. A few Greeks would beat a thoufand Indians.

I conclude this fection with a. few general remarks on this fubject, (viz.)

Gen. Rem. I. Since univerfal, indefinite, and particu lar terms in the plural number, may either be taken in a collective or diftributive sense, there is one fhort and eafy way to find when they are collective and when diftributive, (viz.) If the plural number may be changed into the fingular, that is, if the predicate will agree to one fingle fubject, it is a diftributive idea; if not, it is collective.

Gen. Rem. II. Univerfal and particular terms in the plural number, fuch as, all, feme, few, many, &c. when

they are taken in their diftributive fenfe, reprefent feveral fingle ideas; and when they are thus affixed to the subject of a propofition, render that propofition univerfal or particular, according to the univeriality or particularity of the terms affixed..

Gen. Rem. III. Universal and particular terms in the plural number, taken in their collective fenfe, repreient generally one collective idea.

If this one collective idea be thus reprefented (whether by univerfal or particular terms) as the fubject of a propofition which defcribes the nature of a thing, it properly makes either a singular or an indefinite proposition; for the words, all, fome, a few, &c. do not then denote the quantity of the proposition, but are efeemed merely as terms which connect the individuals together in order to compofe one collective idea. Obferve thefe inftances, all the fycamores in the garden. would make a large grove; that is, this one collection of fycamores, which is a singular idea. Some of the fycamores in the garden would make a fine grove. Sycamores would make a noble grove: in these last the fubject is rather indefinite than singular. But it is very evident, that in each of thefe propositions the predicate can only belong to a collective idea, and therefore the fubject must be esteemed a collective.

If this collective idea (whether reprefented by univerfal or particular terms) be ufed in defcribing paft matters of fact, then it is generally to be eiteemed a singular idea, and renders the proposition singular; as, all the foldiers of Alexander made but a little army: a few Macedonians vanquished the large army of Darius; fome grenadiers in the camp plundered all the neighbouring towns.

Now we have fhewn before, that if a proposition defcribing the nature of things, has an indefinite fubject, it is generally to be esteemed univerfal in its propositional fense; and if it has a singular fubject, in its propositional fenfe it is always ranked with univerfals.

After all we must be forced to confess, that the language of mankind, and the idioms of fpeech are fo exceeding various, that it is hard to reduce them to a few