881. RULE I-A period must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence; as, "Honesty is the best policy."-" Fear God."

These sentences having been defined in § 45, it is presumed no difficulty will be experienced in recognizing them, or in determining how auch of a paragraph must be taken to compose them. As soon as a passage makes complete sense, if it is at the same time independent of what follows in construction and not closely connected with it in meaning, the sentence is complete; and, if it be declarative or imperativ^, must close with a period.

§ 82. The degree of closeness in the connection is a matter which must be left somewhat to individual judgment; and this degree, it may be emarked, is often the only criterion which a writer has to guide him in deciding between periods and colons, colons and semicolons, semicolons and commas. No rule can be laid down that will cover every case; but one or two principles may be stated, as applicable to most of the cases that occur in practice.

I. Words, clauses, and members, united by a conjunction, are regarded as more closely connected than those between which the conjunction is omitted. Thus: "Truth is the basis of every virtue. Its precepts should be religiously obeyed." It is not improper to divide this passage into two distinct sentences, and to separate them with a period. If, however, we introduce a conjunction between them, we make the connection closer, and cannot use a higher point than a semicolon. "Truth is the basis of every virtue; and its precepts should be religiously obeyed."

II. A clause containing a relative pronoun is more closely connected with the one containing the antecedent, than the same clause would be if a personal or demonstrative pronoun were substituted for the relative. "At this critical moment, Murat was ordered to charge with his indomitable cavalry; which movement having been performed with his usual gallantry, the issue of the battle was no longer doubtful." By changing which to this, we diminish the connection between the two parts, and may punctuate differently. "At this critical moment, Murat was ordered to charge with his indomitable cavalry. This movement &c."

$81. Repeat Rule I. How is it determined when a sentence is complete? $82. What is said of the degree of closeness in the connection? What effect does the omission of a conjunction between words, clauses, and members, have on the closeness of the connection? Does a relative or a demonstrative pronoun institute a closer connection between the parts of a sentence. Illustrate this. How does a portion of a

III. A portion of a sentence that has a distinct subject of its own i less closely connected with the rest, than such a part as depends for its subject on some preceding clause. Thus, in the sentence, "Truth is the basis of every virtue; and its precepts should be religiously obeyed,” a semicolon is placed after virtue, because a new nominative, precepts, is introduced into the final member. If we keep truth as the subject, the connection will be closer, and we must substitute a comma for the semicolon after virtue; as, "Truth is the basis of every virtue, and should be cherished by all."

It follows from the above remarks that it is not proper to place a period immediately before a conjunction which closely connects what follows with what precedes. This is frequently done in the translation of the Scriptures, where we have verse after verse commencing with and; but it is not authorized by good modern usage. In such cases, either the passage so introduced ought to form part of the preceding sentence, and be separated from it only by a colon or semicolon; or else, if this is impracticable on account of the great length or intricacy it would involve, the following sentence should be remodelled in such a way as to commence with some other word. These remarks apply to all conjunc tions that form a decided connection between the parts; such as merely signify to continue the narrative, and imply no connection with what precedes, may without impropriety introduce a new sentence.

As the substance of the preceding paragraph, we may lay down the following general rule, remembering that there are occasional exceptions :— A sentence should not commence with the conjunctions and, for, or how ever; but may do so with but, now, and moreover.

EXAMPLES.

Friendship is not a source of pleasure only; it is also a source of duty: and of the responsibilities it imposes we should never be unmindful.” Here and intimately connects the two members, and a period must not precede it. "There is only one species of misery which friendship cannot comfort, the misery of atrocious guilt; for there are no pangs but those of conscience that sympathy does not alleviate." Here for implies so close a connection that a period is inadmissible before it.

sentence containing a distinct subject of its own compare in closeness of connection with one that depends for its subject on some preceding clause? Give an example.

Where is it improper to place a period? In what book do we frequently find sentences commencing with and? What two remedies are suggested for such cases? To what conjunctions do these remarks apply? What conjunctions may with propriety commence a new sentence? Is it ever proper to begin a sentence with and? In what case?

"Then cried they all again, saying, Not this man, but Barabbas Now Barabbas was a robber." In this sentence it is right to precede now with a period, because this word does not imply connection, but means simply to continue the narrative, to go on.

"Domitian was a low, cruel, and sensual wretch, whose highest pleasure consisted in maiming helpless flies, whose mind was paralyzed by sloth, whose soul was surfeited with disgusting gluttony, whose heart was dead to every generous impulse, and whose conscience was seared by crime. And this was the emperor of Rome, the controller of the world's destinies." Here a period may be placed before and Sentences in which, as in this, and does not closely connect, but is simply equivalent to now, as used in the preceding example, constitute an exception to the general rule, and admit a period before and. §83. From Remark II. it follows that a period must nct separate a relative clause from its antecedent. It would, therefore, be wrong to substitute periods for semicolons in the following sentence: "There are men whose powers operate in leisure and in retirement, and whose intellectual vigor deserts them in conversation; whom merriment confuses, and objection disconcerts; whose bashfulness restrains their exertion, and suffers them not to speak till the time of speaking is past."

§ 84. RULE II.-A period must be placed after every abbreviated word; as, Dr. Geo. F. Johnson, F. R. S.

§ 85. The period in this case merely indicates the abbreviation, and does not take the place of other stops. The punctuation must be the same as if no such period were employed; as, “My clerk put the letter in the P. O.; there can be no mistake about it." "Horace Jones, jr., M.D., LLD."

§ 86. When, however, an abbreviated word ends a sentence, only one period must be used; for an example, see the close of the preceding paragraph.

§ 87. Under this head fall Roman capitals and small letters, when used for figures; as, "Charles I. was the son of James I."

§ 88. An important exception to this rule must be noted. When an abbreviated word is of such constant occurrence that, without reference to the word from which it comes, it is itself considered as a component part of our language, no period is placed after it. Thus, it would be wrong to put a period after eve abbreviated from evening, or hack from hackney.

88. What must a period in no case separate?

$84. Repeat Rule II.

§ 85. In this case what does the period indicate? Must it take the place of other tops?

§ 86. In what case, however, is there an exception?

§ 87. When must the Roman capitals and small letters be followed by periods, under this rule?

§ 88. What large class of abbreviated words constitute an exception to this rule?

§89. So, when the first syllable of a Christian or given name is used, not as an abbreviation of the latter, but as a familiar substitute for it, no period must be employed; as, “Ben Jonson.”

For a comprehensive list of abbreviations, see Table at the close of the volume.

EXERCISE I.

Insert periods in the following sentences, wherever required by the above rules.

A graphic description of this scene may be found in Gibbon's Hist of the Dec and Fall of the Rom Em, vol ii, chap 5

Mrs Felicia Hemans was born in Liverpool, Eng, and died at Dublin, 1835, AD

Messrs G Longman and Co have received a note from the Cor Sec of the Nat Shipwreck Soc, informing them of the loss of one of their vessels off the NE coast of S A, at 8 PM, on the 20th of Jan

James VI of Scotland became Jas I of England

EXERCISE II.

In the following extract all the stops are inserted except periods. The pupil is required to introduce these points wherever they are needed, and to begin each new sentence with a capital.

THE GROTTO OF ADELSBURG.

"This great natural curiosity lies about thirty miles from the Adri atic, back in the Friuli Mountains, near the province of Cariola we arrived at the nearest tavern at three in the afternoon; and, subscribing our names upon the magistrate's books, took four guides and the requisite number of torches, and started on foot a half hour's walk brought us to a large rushing stream, which, after turning a mill, disappeared with violence into the mouth of a broad cavern sunk in the base of a mountain an iron gate opened on the nearest side; and, lighting our torches, we received an addition of half a dozen men to our party of guides, and entered we descended for ten or fifteen minutes through a capacious gallery of rock, up to the ankles in mud, and feeling continually the drippings exuding from the roof, till by the echoing murmurs of dashing water we found ourselves approaching the bed of a subterraneous river we soon emerged in a vast cavern, whose height, though we had twenty torches, was lost in the darkness the river rushed dimly below us, at the depth of perhaps fifty feet, partially illuminated by a row of lamps, hung on a slight wooden bridge by which we were to cross tc the opposite side

"We came after a while to a deeper descent, which opened into a magnificent and spacious hall it is called 'the ball-room', and is used as

89. What exception refers to certain Christian or given names?

such once a year, on the occasion of a certain Illyrian feast the floor has been cleared of stalagmites, the roof and sides are ornamented beyond all art with glittering spars, a natural gallery with a balustrade of stalactites contains the orchestra, and side-rooms are all around where supper might be laid and dressing-rooms offered in the style of a palace I can imagine nothing more magnificent than such a scene a literal description of it even would read like a fairy tale

"A little farther on, we came to a perfect representation of a waterfall the impregnated water had fallen on a declivity, and, with a slightly ferruginous tinge of yellow, poured over in the most natural resemblance to a cascade after a rain we proceeded for ten or fifteen minutes, and found a small room like a chapel, with a pulpit in which stood one of the guides, who gave us, as we stood beneath, an Illyrian exhortation there was a sounding-board above, and I have seen pulpits in old Gothic churches that seemed, at a first glance, to have less method in their architecture the last thing we reached was the most beautiful from the cornice of a long gallery hung a thin, translucent sheet of spar, in the graceful and waving folds of a curtain; with a lamp behind, the hand could be seen through any part of it it was perhaps twenty feet in length, and hung five or six feet down from the roof of the cavern the most singular part of it was the fringe a ferruginous stain ran through it from one end to the other, with the exactness of a drawn line; and thence to the curving edge a most delicate rose-teint faded gradually down, like the last flush of sunset through a silken curtain had it been a work of art, done in alabaster and stained with the pencil, it would have been thought admirable

"The guide wished us to proceed, but our feet were wet, and the air of the cavern was too chill we were at least four miles, they told us, from the entrance, having walked briskly for upwards of two hours the grotto is said to extend ten miles under the mountains, and has never been thoroughly explored parties have started with provisions, and passed forty-eight hours in it without finding the extremity it seems to me that any city I ever saw might be concealed in its caverns I have often tried to conceive of the grottos of Antiparos, and the celebrated caverns of our own country; but I received here an entirely new idea of the possibility of space under ground there is no conceiving it unseen the river emerges on the other side of the mountain, seven or eight miles from its first entrance."

LESSON XVII.

INTERROGATION-POINT.-EXCLAMATION-POINT.

§ 90. RULE I.—An interrogation-point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member, and clause.

$90. Repeat Rule I., relating to the use of the interrogation-point.