LESSON IX.

ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

§ 30. To recapitulate and enlarge on what has been said in the preceding lesson, it appears that our language, as it now stands, is composed of the following elements :

1. SAXON. Of the forty thousand words contained in our fullest dictionaries, twenty-three thousand are from this source; as are, also, our chief peculiarities of construction and idiom. Some of these it may be interesting to particularize. The inflection of our pronouns; the terminations of the possessive case and plural number, as well as of the second and third person singular of verbs; the syllables er and est, and the words more and most, by which we form the comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs; the suffix ly (derived from like), which enters into the formation of a large propor tion of our adverbs,-all these are derived from the Saxon. As to the words we have received from it, they are those which occur most frequently and are individually of the greatest importance: such as the articles a, an, the; all our pronouns; the adjectives oftenest used, especially such as are irregularly compared; the commonest adverbs of one syllable, how, now, then, and the like; nearly all of the numerous irregular verbs, as well as the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will, &c.; and the prepositions and conjunctions, almost without cxception.

Irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs, are in every language among the oldest words, and are very likely to be those most used in common conversation; to which fact their deviation from regularity may often

80. How many words are contained in our fullest dictionaries? Of these, how many are Saxon? What terminations have we received from this source? Which of our words are Saxon? Mention some of them. What is said of the irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs in every language? What striking objects have received Saxon lames? Whence come most of our abstract terms? Whence, the specifications under tham? Give examples. What rich fund of words is almost entirely Saxon? Mention

be traced. These, as we have seen, our Saxon ancestors gave us; to them, also, we owe the names of the striking objects which constantly meet our view, of sun and moon, land and water, hill and dale. While, moreover, we borrow from the Latin or French most of our abstract terms, the specifications classed under them are for the most part Saxon. Thus Latin supplies us with the general term color; but to Saxon we are indebted for the particular varieties, white and black, blue and yel low, red and brown: from the former we get the comprehensive term to move; from the latter, the different kinds of motion, walking, running, leaping, springing, gliding, creeping, crawling, &c. Hence, too, the rich and necessary fund of words by which we express our feelings and pas sions as well as the relations which call them forth. These emotions the Saxons shared with all others of the human race, and the words which they employed in expressing them have come down to us almost without alteration. To this class belong the words love and hate, hope and fear, smile and tear, sigh and groan, weeping and laughter, father and mother, man and wife, son and daughter. Our common business terms, the language of the shop, the market, and the farm, have the same origin. Saxon, therefore, besides dictating the laws and furnishing the particles by which our words are connected, yields the most available terms for expressing the feelings, describing the objects of sense and imagination, and conveying the facts of every-day life.

2. NORMAN FRENCH.-From the time of the Conquest till the days of Chaucer, a period of three hundred years, this element played an important part in the formation of our tongue. First introduced by royal authority as the language of law, chivalry, and feudalism, and unwillingly received by the masses, it finally found its way into their affections, and was largely drawn upon for words in which the Saxon vocabulary was deficient. From this source it is estimated that at 'east five thousand words were added. Besides covering the abstractions and generalities of every-day life, they often convey slight distinctions and delicate shades of thought. We find them particularly useful, when we wish to express disap

some. What other terms have the same origin? What portion, then, of its syntax and vocabulary does English owe to Saxon?

Between what periods did Norman French play an important part in the formation of our tongue? How was it first introduced? In process of time, how was it received by the people? How many words have we taken from this source? What do they convey with peculiar accuracy? When do we find them particularly useful? How is this explained?

probation without wounding the feelings of another. The natural courtesy of the Normans led to the creation of a fund of words applicable to this purpose, for which the energetic and too often rough expressions of the Saxons were totally unsuited.

3. MODERN FRENCH.-From this offspring of the ancient Norman our authors have, at different periods, taken many useful words; which, either with very slight changes in their spelling or without any modification at all, have, after a time, by common consent, become incorporated into the language. A taste for French expressions as well as French opinions has from time to time prevailed in England, and of course led to the introduction of many foreign terms from this source; whence, also, numerous additions have been made through the medium of trade, many fabrics which owe their invention to the artists of France having come into general use and retained their foreign names.

4. LATIN.-Under this head must be classed those elements which have come directly from the Latin, and not through the medium of any other tongue. Between the two classes it is not always easy to draw a dividing line, particularly in the case of the later derivatives. The earliest additions from this source (if we except proper names and a few military terms, introduced into the original vernacular of Britain during the period of Roman supremacy, and thence received and naturalized at a later date by the Saxons) were ecclesiastical words, such as monk, saint, cloister, mass, and the like, necessarily employed wherever the Church of Rome carried its doctrines, institutions, and ritual. Next follow the Latinisms introduced in the thirteenth century, at which time a taste for classical studies began to revive in England

What is said of the additions from modern French? Through what medium have they mostly been received?

Into what two classes are the Latin elements of our language divided? Is it easy to distinguish between them? What additions were made from this source during the period of Roman supremacy? What Latin terms were next introduced? Give ex amples. What Latinisms next followed? Towards the close of the eighteenth cen

as well as elsewhere. Thenceforth, as necessity required, occasional additions were made from the same source, especially by theological and scientific writers; until, towards the close. of the eighteenth century, Johnson and his imitators, having coined largely from Latin roots and naturalized a variety of classical idioms, succeeded in making their high-sounding derivatives fashionable, at the expense of the less pretending. Saxon.

It has been questioned by those who compare the simplicity of Addison with the pompousness of Hume and Gibbon, whether this wholesale latinizing was any improvement to our language and literature; if, however, it resulted in no other advantage, it has at least secured us an array of synonymes (that is, words that have the same or a similar signification) unequalled by those of any other modern language.

5. CELTIC.-Next in importance are the Celtic elements, some of which were introduced into our language at or shortly after the period of its first formation, while others have been added in modern times, either by antiquarians or in consequence of intercourse with the Welsh and Irish. As examples of the latter, may be mentioned the words tartan, plaid, flannel, &c. The former class may be arranged under two subdivisions :

I. Those elements which came directly from the Celtic itself; embracing a great number of geographical names, such as Thames, Kent, &c., as well as a variety of common nouns in every-day use, among which are bran, darn, flaw, gruel, mop, tackle, &c.

II. Such as originated in the Celtic, yet were received into English, not directly from that tongue, but through the medium of Latin or Norman French, into which they had previously found their way.

tury, what taste became fashionable? How does the style of Addison compare with that of Hume and Gibbon? What question has been raised with regard to this wholesale latinizing? What great advantage has resulted from it?

What elements are next in importance? When were the Celtic additions introduced? What is the first class into which the ancient elements are divided? Give examples. What, the second? How have Celtic words found their way into English in modern times?

6. GREEK. To this language we are indebted largely for scientific terms, but little or none for words of every-day life. The elements thus derived are all of recent addition. If we except the words phenomenon, criterion, automaton, and a few others, they have all been introduced within the last hundred and fifty years. New discoveries of science having ren⚫dered an enlargement of our technical nomenclature necessary, recourse was had to the Greek as affording the greatest advantages for this purpose. Hence our numerous words ending in logy and graphy, and their derivatives.

7. MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS.-Under this head fall the few isolated words added from time to time, through the medium of business, or as occasion has required, from Eastern and North American dialects, or the modern tongues of Europe not before alluded to.

Dr. Latham, in his "Handbook," p. 56, furnishes us with a variety of examples:

ITALIAN, virtuoso.

RUSSIAN, Czar.

TURKISH, Coffee, bashaw, scimitar.

ARABIC, admiral, assassin, alchemy, alcohol, and a variety of words beginning with the Arabian article al.

PERSIAN, turban, caravan.

HINDOO, calico, chintz, curry, lac.

MALAY, bantam, gamboge, rattan, sago.

CHINESE, nankeen, tea, and its varieties, bohea, hyson, &c.

N. AMERICAN INDIAN, squaw, wigwam.

§ 31. From what has been stated, however, with regard to the numerical proportion of the elements composing our language, no correct idea can be formed respecting their rela

What terms do we owe to the Greek language? When were they introduced? Within this period, what has called for an enlargement of our scientific vocabulary? What terminations in English indicate Greek origin?

How have a variety of miscellaneous elements crept into our language? Give examples from the Italian; Russian; Turkish; Arabic; Persian; Hindoo; Malay; Chinese; North American Indian dialects.

§ 31. From what has been stated with regard to their number, can a correct idea be formed of the relativo importance of the elements that compose our language? Why