hence been called Socratic; and a Socratic dialogue is one in which it is pursued.

There are also lighter dialogues, in which wit and humor play an important part, and which are designed principally to satirize the follies of the day. These, Lucian, among the ancients, carried to a high degree of perfection. In modern times, we have few specimens either of the lighter or the graver kind, that can be said to possess superior merit; the difficulty of this style of composition seems to have brought it into disfavor with the majority of writers.

§ 455. An extended dialogue, consisting of different scenes accommodated to action, and participated in by a number of characters, who appear and disappear at intervals as may be necessary for the development of the plot, is called a Drama. Dramas are written in either prose or poetry, but generally the latter; for which reason, we shall at present postpone their consideration.

§ 456. We subjoin a specimen of the tale,-one, however, in which, by reason of its brevity, there is necessarily but little plot. In tales of any length, description may be introduced with effect.

CARDINAL RICHELIEU'S GUEST.

Cardinal de Richelleu has always been considered a great minister, and on accounts he well deserved the name. He rendered an immense service to monarchy, in despatching the last heads of the feudal hydra, and literature owes him much for the establishment of the French Academy. Although himself but an indifferent writer, he was ever ready to encourage the arts, and paid liberally for the efforts of others. The Cardinal, however, could not endure that his acts should be made the subject of comment, particularly since some of them were of a character not calculated to elicit very warm commendation from lovers of morality. The more powerful, indeed, occasionally indulged in freedom of speech; but woe to the humble in dividual that was indiscreet enough publicly to find fault with the peccadilloes of his Eminence. With such he had a summary way of privately dealing which effec tually closed their lips for the future.

M. Dumont, a small merchant of the Rue St. Denis, received one morning a letter dated Rueil, a little village on the outskirts of Paris, where the Cardinal had a country-seat. This letter contained an invitation to supper for the next day with his Eminence. M. Dumont could not believe his eyes; he read the letter several times looked at the direction, and finally concluded that he must be indeed the person to whom it was addressed. Amazed beyond expression, he called his wife and daugh

ancient writer excelled in it? What has brought this kind of compositier into disfavor with the majority of writers ?

455. What is a drama? Are dramas generally written in prose, or poetry?

ters, to communicate to them his good fortune. You may imagine the joy and pride of the three women!

About four o'clock he mounted his horse, and started for Rueil. He had scarcely passed the suburbs, when the clouds assumed a threatening look, and the sound of distant thunder announced the approach of a violent storm. The merchant, having neglected to provide himself with a cloak, doubled the speed of his horse. But the storin travelled faster than his steed; flashes of lightning succeeded each other with frightful rapidity, and the rain fell in torrents. Assailed by the tempest, our hero put bis horse to the gallop; but at length, unable to continue his journey, he stopped at a small tavern in Manterre. He alighted, sent his horse to the stable, and took refuge in a low room, where the servants lighted a blazing fire to dry his clothes. While he was warming himself, the door opened, and another person, also drenched with rain, entered, and seated himself in the opposite corner.

The two travellers looked at each other for some time in silence. At last, M. Dumont addressed his companion with the words: "What detestable weather!"

"It is very bad indeed," replied the stranger. "But it is only a shower, which, I hope, will soon pass over."

"Hear," continued M. Dumont; "the storm increases; peals of thunder shake the house; the rain falls in torrents: and yet I must go on."

"Sir," said the unknown, "it must be important business that can induce you to proceed on your journey in this weather."

"It is, indeed," said Dumont; "I will tell you: it is no secret. I am invited to a supper, this evening, with the Cardinal de Richelieu."

"Ah! I know it is a difficult matter to decline such an invitation. But you have still a long way to go, and how can you present yourself before his Eminence in the state in which you now are?"

"His Eminence will, perhaps, appreciate my eagerness to accept his kind invitation.” "If I did not fear to appear indiscreet, I would ask you if you ever had any thing to do with the Cardinal."

"Nothing at all. I must even say that I can not account for the favor which I have received."

"The Cardinal is very jealous of his authority; he does not like to have his actions judged. One word sometimes is sufficient to excite his suspicion; think well. Have you never given his Eminence any cause for complaint against you?"

"I think not. I have been constantly occupied with my business. I have no inter est in what they call politics. However, I believe that, before two or three friends only, I censured the death of the Duke of Montmorency, and you would have done the same, had your grandfather been the steward of that illustrious noble."

"My dear sir, you look like an honest man. You have inspired me with much interest for you; will you listen to me then? Do not go to Rueil."

"Not go to Rueil! I shall set out this instant, in spite of the storm."

"One word more, my friend, for your position interests me exceedingly; you really believe that the Cardinal is expecting you to supper? Well, let me undeceive you You are expected, it is true,-but to be hung!"

"Oh, merciful Heaven! what do you mean? It is impossible."

"I tell you again," said the stranger, "to be hung!"

At these words, Dumont, shuddering with terror, drew himself near to the un

known.

"For Heaven's sake, how do you know?"

"I am sure of it."

"But what have I done to deserve such a fate?"

"I don't know; but I am sure of what I say, for I am the one who has been sent for to hang you."

The poor merchant, pale as a corpse, drew back several steps, and, scarcely able to speak, said:

"Pray tell me, sir-who are you?"

“The hangman of Paris, called by his Eminence to despatch you. Think of the service I have rendered you, and remember that the least indiscretion on your part will be my ruin."

The merchant remounted his horse without waiting for the storm to abate; and, drenched to the bone, he reached Paris. Instead of repairing to his own house, he sought shelter with an old friend, to whom he related his adventure and wonderful escape. With the aid of money, he obtained a passport, under a false name; and, well disguised, started for England. There he remained till the death of the Cardinal, which occurred two years after.

EXERCISE.

Write a Tale, founded on incidents of your own inven tion, and conveying the moral that appearances are deceitful.

LESSON CI.

ESSAYS.

§ 457. ESSAYS constitute the fourth division of prose compositions.

The term essay literally signifies an attempt; and is generally applied, in literature, to productions in which a writer briefly sets forth his views on the leading points connected with a subject, without pausing to consider them carefully or minutely. Some writers, however, in a spirit of modesty, have thought proper to characterize as essays their most profound and elaborate compositions, following the example of Locke in his celebrated "Essay on the Human Understanding" The term has thus come to have a widely extended signification; and is now equally applicable to the crude exercise of the school-boy and the sublimest effort of the man of letters.

§ 457. What constitute the fourth division of prose compositions? What does the term essay literally signify? To what is it generally applied in literature? What have some writers, in a spirit of modesty, used this term to denote? What is the consequence, as regards the present acceptation of the word essay? What, for the most part,

The themes of essays are, for the most part, either abstract subjects or topics connected with life and manners.

§458. The term essay being thus comprehensive, the compo sitions so designated are susceptible of division into a variety of classes distinguished by particular names; the principal of which are Editorials, Reviews, Treatises, Tracts, Dissertations, and Disquisitions.

An Editorial is a short essay on some current topic of the day, presented in a newspaper or periodical as embodying the views of its conductors.

A Review is a critical essay on some literary production, in which its beauties and defects are pointed out.

A Treatise is a methodical and elaborate essay, generally on some ethical, political, or speculative, subject.

A Tract is a brief essay, generally on some religious or political theme, called forth by the events of the day, and seldom possessing sufficient general interest to survive the occa sion which gave it birth.

A Dissertation is an essay of some length, investigating, in all its relations, some disputed subject; and written, not for the purpose of establishing a given position, but of fairly presenting the arguments on all sides, and arriving at the truth,

A Disquisition has the same object in view as a disser tation, that is, the eliciting of truth; it differs from the latter only in being more brief, and being confined more strictly to the particular point under consideration.

§ 459. In the conduct of the essay, great latitude is allowed. Its subjects are so various that no uniform mode of treatment can be recommended or followed. The heads to be taken will of course differ according to the character of the topics treated; yet, in most compositions of this class,

constitute the themes of essays? Enumerate the classes into which essays are divi ded. What is an editorial? a review? a treatise? a tract? a dissertation? a dis quisition?

§ 459. What is allowed in the conduct of an essay? Why cannot a uniform mode of treatment be followed? According to what will the heads to be taken differ? What

the following will be found appropriate. They may be amplified according to the suggestions in § 409.

I. Introduction.-Suggestions respecting it will be found in § 405, 406, 407, 408.

II. Definition. III. Origin.

IV. History.

V. Historical Illustrations.

VI. Advantages. Similes and Quotations. VII. Disadvantages. Similes and Quotations.

VIII. Practical Conclusion.

If the subject is one on which there is a difference of opinion, it may be well, in place of the fourth and the fifth head, given above, to substitute the following:

IV. Statement of Views.

I. General view. What has been thought on this subject by all nations, and in all ages!

II. Local view. What opinions are entertained on it in the age and country to which the writer belongs?

Or the following division may be preferable :

I. Ancient view, or that held by the ancients generally, and especially their philosophers.

II. Modern view. Causes which may have operated to produce a change of opinion.

V. Author's View. Arguments to sustain it. The negative argu ment, or proving the truth of what is advanced by showing the absurdity of the contrary, is often introduced with fine effect. It will be seen from the above heads that the essay may contain all the parts of composition,-description, narration, argument, exposition, and speculation.

8460. As a specimen of the essay, in the brief form in which, as a school or college exercise, it generally appears, we subjoin a composition on Friendship, which may be supposed to have been written from the following

ANALYSIS.

I. Definition. What is friendship!

II. Origin and necessity.

III. Estimation in which it was formerly held. Examples.

IV. Universality; extends to all ranks of life.

V. Benefits of true, and evils of false, friendship!

VI. Conclusion. Practical reflections.

heads will generally be found appropriate? If the subject is one on which there is a

difference of opinion, what heads will it be well to take?