vorite weapon to bear; and often censures a passage, not because there is any thing wrong in it, but merely from the fact that it affords him an opportunity of being merry at another's expense. Such pleasantry is unseasonable, as well as disingenuous and unfair.

§ 401. Objections.-The objection most commonly urged against criticism is that it abridges the natural liberty of genius, and imposes shackles which are fatal to freedom of thought and expression. This argument has been noticed before. It is sufficient here to say that the cutting off of faults cannot be called an abridgment of freedom; or, if it can, it is well that such freedom should be abridged. The reasonable author is not unwilling to have his work examined by the principles of good taste and sound understanding; and this is all that the true critic proposes to do. There may, indeed, be some unreasonable critics who carry their strictures to the verge of personal abuse; but their violence gives no more ground for objecting to healthy and proper criticism than the fact that there are unsound reasoners affords for inveighing against all logic.

A more specious objection is sometimes made, which is aimed particularly at the principles on which criticism is founded. These, it is charged, are arbitrary and untrue, be cause it sometimes happens that what the critic condemns the public receive with approbation. Were this often the case, there would be ground to doubt whether the art of the critic, and indeed all the departments of rhetoric, are not resting on a false foundation. Such instances, though very rare, do sometimes occur. It must be admitted that works containing gross violations of the rules of art have attained a general and even a lasting reputation. Such are the plays of Shakspeare which, considered as dramatic poems, are irregular in the highest degree. But it must be observed that they have gained public admiration, not by their transgressions of the

$401. What is most commonly urged as an objection against criticism? How is this objection answered? What more specious objection is sometimes advanced? What admission is made? Explain how this fact furnishes no argument in favor of the

laws of criticism, but in spite of such transgressions. The beauties they possess, in points where they conform to the rules of art, are sufficient to overshadow their blemishes and inspire a degree of satisfaction superior to the disgust arising from the latter. Shakspeare pleases, not by bringing the transactions of many years into one play, not by his mixture of tragedy and comedy in the same piece, nor by his strained thoughts and affected witticisms. These we regard as blemishes, traceable to the tone of the age in which he lived. But these faults are forgotten in his animated and masterly representations of character, his lively descriptions, his striking and original conceptions, and above all his nice appreciation of the emotions and passions of the human heart; beauties which true criticism teaches us to value no less than nature enables us to feel.

We have not here the space for an example of extended criticism. Blair, whose lucid pen, correct taste, sound judg ment, and extensive reading, eminently fitted him for the task, furnishes in his lectures (xx-xxiv) several admirable papers on the style of Addison and Swift. To these, the student who wishes specimens of critical writing extended to some length, will do well to refer. We here present a brief examination of two passages in which verbal criticism is exemplified.

SPECIMENS OF VERBAL CRITICISM.

1. "Man, considered in himself, is a very helpless and a very wretched being. Launched alone on the sea of life, he would soon suffer shipwreck."

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We have here a proposition strikingly true, expressed in clear and forcible terms. The first word, "man is universally employed by the best authors as an appellative for the human race. Man, considered in himself", signifies, the human family viewed as individuals independent of each other. In this state, says the author, he is “a very helpless being". The term "helpless " here implies the want of power to succor himself: and it is evident that, if man were left to himself in infancy, he would perish; and that, if altogether detached from society in manhood, it would be only with great difficulty that he could procure for himself either the comforts or the necessaries of life.

objector. Whose productions are instanced as having gained a world-wide popularity in spite of their irregularities? To what is this popularity attributable?

But man,"considered in himself", is not only a very helpless, but also "a very wretched being". It will be observed that additional emphasis is here communicated by the repetition of the article and the adverb. He is not merely a very helpless and wretched being, but " very helpless and a very wretched being". The term "wretched" is generally used as synonymous with unhappy or miserable; but, in this passage, it expresses the meaning of the author more precisely than either of these words would have done. Unhappy may denote merely the uneasiness of a man who may be happy if he pleases; the discon tented are unhappy, because they think others more prosperous than themselves. Miserable is applied to persons whose minds are tormented by the stings of conscience, agitated by the violence of passion, or harassed by worldly vexations; and, accordingly, we say that wicked men are miserable. But, "wretched", derived from the Saxon word for an exile, literally signifies cast away, or abandoned. Hence appears the proper application of the word in this sentence: man, if left to himself, might indeed exist in a solitary state without being either unhappy or miserable, provided his bodily wants were supplied; though he certainly would be a very “wretched" being, when deprived of all the comforts of social life, and all the endearments of friends and kindred.

Having thus stated his proposition, the author illustrates it with a metaphor. The figure, though appropriate, is trite; life has, from time immemorial, been compared to a sea, and man to a voyager. An original comparison, which a little thought could hardly have failed to suggest, would have been more striking and effective.

2. "Education is the most excellent endowment, as it enlarges the mind, promotes its powers, and renders a man estimable in the eyes of society."

This sentence, though it contains many pompous words, is a remarkable example of a style which lacks propriety. Education is not an "endowment"; for an endowment is a natural gift, such as taste or imagination. Education does not "enlarge" the "mind"; though it may, in a figurative sense, enlarge its capacities. Neither can it "promote" the mental "powers" themselves; but it may promote their im provement. Nor does it follow, that, because a man has improved his mind by education, he is on that account "estimable", esteem being produced only by intrinsic worth; but a good education may render a man respectable. The sentiment which the author intended to convey should have been expressed thus: "Education is the most excellent attainment, as it enlarges the capacities of the mind, promotes their improvement, and renders a man respectable in the eyes of society."

PART IV.

PROSE COMPOSITION,

LESSON LXVII.

INVENTION.-ANALYSIS

OF SUBJECTS.

§ 402. Up to the present point, the attention of the stu dent has been directed chiefly to the dress in which he should clothe his thoughts; we now proceed to the thoughts themselves, and those practical exercises in composition, to prepare for which has been the object of the preceding pages.

The process of evolving thoughts in connection with any particular subject is known as INVENTION. It is this that furnishes the material of composition, and on which, in a great measure, its value depends.

Here, moreover, lies most of the difficulty which the young expe rience in writing. Let them have definite thoughts, and they will generally find it easy to express themselves. But how are they to deal with intangible things; to form the necessary conceptions; and to insure that, when formed, they will be worthy of being embodied and

$402. Up to the present point, to what has the student's attention been directed? To what do we now proceed? What is Invention ? What does it furnish? What said of the difficulty which the young experience in writing?

preserved in language! This question we now proceed to answer; not claiming that the want of intellectual ability can be supplied by this or any other course; yet believing that those to whom composition is distasteful, will, by pursuing the plan here prescribed, find most of their difficulty vanish, and that all who fairly test the system will improve more rapidly than they could do if left to chance or their own unaided efforts.

§ 403. As soon as a subject has been selected, the first thing required is thought,—careful, deliberate, concentrated, thought. When Newton was asked how he had succeeded in making so many great discoveries, he replied, "By thinking." This labor the composer must undergo; no instruction or aid from foreign sources can take its place. It must be patient and deliberate thought, moreover, not hasty or superficial; it must be original thought, not a reproduction of the ideas of others; it must be well-directed thought, fixed on a definite object, and not allowed to wander from one thing to another; it must be exhaustive thought, embracing the subject in all its relations.

When this task has been fairly performed, the next step is in order. This is an Analysis of the subject, or a drawing out of the various heads which suggest themselves to the mind as appropriate to the theme of discourse. Such heads will of course differ according to the subject under consideration, as will appear when we treat in turn of the different kinds of composition. There is so general a resemblance between them, however, that from an example or two there will be no difficulty in understanding what is here meant.

Suppose, for instance, that ANGER is the subject. On a little reflec tion, such questions as the following will suggest themselves to the composer; and, as they occur, he notes them down.

What is meant by the term Anger?-What visible effect does this passion produce on the person indulging in it?-How does he feel, when his fit of passion has subsided?-Morally speaking, what is the charac

§ 408. When a subject has been selected, what is the first thing required? What kind of thought is here referred to? To what did Newton attribute his discoveries? What step is next in order? What is meant by analyzing a subject? Suppose Anger to be the theme, what questions will suggest themselves to the composer? What will