hence, though their evidence may be reliable as regards the claims of the Phoenician alphabet to an antiquity greater than either the Egyptian or the Syrian can boast, they must still have been unqualified to pronounce between it and the He. brew. From the latter, indeed, the Phoenician alphabet is now generally thought to have been derived. It is at least well known that writing was practised among the Jews long before. we have any evidence of its having been in use among the Phoenicians. The Pentateuch itself is a living proof that alphabetic writing was known to Moses, while the frequent allusions to that art which it contains shows that this knowledge was not confined to the legislator alone.* The injunction contained in the 9th verse of the 6th chapter of Deuteronomy, that the people should write the words of the law on the posts of their houses and on their gates, proves such a general acquaintance with the art as to justify the inference that it was then no recent invention, but had been known and used for years. The suggestion urged by some that the writing here alluded to, as well as that in which the five books of Moses were originally composed, may have been according to the hieroglyphic or syllabic system, is inadmissible; for we have not the slightest trace of the existence of these sacred books any other form than that which they now bear.

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Nor are we by any means driven to the inference which some have drawn from the passage, that the Deity himself communicated to Moses, and through him to the human race, a knowledge of the alphabetic system. Had so important a revelation been made, we have every reason to suppose that

*See EXODUS, Xxiv., 12; xxxii., 15, 16; xvii., 14; xxxiv., 1, 27: NUM BERS, XXXiii., 2: DEUTERONOMY, Xxvii., 3.

is the Phoenician supposed to have been derived? How early was alphabetic writing known among the Jews? What leads us to suppose that the people generally were ac quainted with the art? What precludes us from supposing that the writing here al luded to was according to some earlier system? What inference has been drawn from these passages? What renders it unlikely that this was the case?

it would have been recorded in distinct terms by the Jewish legislator.

§ 13. The Greek Alphabet and its Derivatives.—Whatever alphabet may have been the most ancient, one fact is clearly established; that Cadmus introduced sixteen letters from Phoenicia into Greece, to which Palamedes subsequently added four, and Simonides, at a still later period, four more.

The Phoenician language was written from right to left. The Greek at first followed it in this respect; but was in course of time written from right to left, and from left to right, alternately, as land is ploughed. The Laws of Solon were engraved in this style, about 600 B. C., as also were many inscriptions still to be seen on ancient monuments. Soon after this period, however, the present manner of writing, from left to <ight, came into general use. It had been introduced many years before by Pronapides, who, according to some, was a teacher of Homer's.

From the Greek alphabet, the Etruscan, Oscan, Latin, Coptic, and others, were formed. The Latin alphabet contained twenty-five letters. From it, ours is derived. The number and form of the Latin letters are retained in English without any further change than the addition of W.

§ 14. Comparison of Different Alphabets. As letters are merely arbitrary marks used to denote the elemental sounds of which spoken language is composed, the number of letters in the alphabet of any people ought to correspond exactly with the number of such sounds which they employ. Yet in no language do we find this to be the case. In some the alphabetic characters are the more numerous, in consequence both of the admission of more than one letter to express the same sound, and of the introduction of characters to denote com

§ 13. Who introduced letters into Greece, and how many were there? How many were subsequently added, and by whom?

How was tho Phoenician language written? What other language was written similarly to it? What change was afterwards made as regards the Greek language? What laws were written in this style? By whom was the present method of writing Introduced? What alphabets were derived from the Greek? How many letters did the Latin alphabet contain? What alphabet was derived from it? How do the two correspond?

§ 14. What are letters? any people to correspond?

With what ought the number of letters in the alphabet of Do we find such a correspondence? What is the reason of this inconsistency? How do the different alphabets compare in the number of their

pound sounds which could otherwise be perfectly represented by combinations. In other languages some sounds are entirely unrepresented, and consequently in these there is a deficiency of alphabetic characters. Hence, though about the same number of elemental sounds are in use among different nations, there will be found no little difference in the number of letters composing their various alphabets.

Thus, the English alphabet contains 26 letters; the French, 23; the Italian, 20; the Spanish, 27; the Russian, 41; the Hebrew, Samaritan, Syrian, and Chaldean, each 22; the Arabic, 28; the Persian and Egyp tian, each 32; the Turkish, 33; the Georgian, 36; the Armenian, 38; the Sanscrit, 50; the Abyssinian, 202; and the Indian, cr Brahmanic, 240.

LESSON V.

FORMATION OF LANGUAGE.

§ 15. THERE is every reason, as we have seen, to believe that, while in the invention of language man was assisted by the Deity, it was still only after many years of gradual development and improvement that it arrived at its present perfection. As it is impossible for us to ascertain how far divine assistance was vouchsafed, we shall consider the steps of formation as it is most likely they would be taken by man, independently of a direct revelation, under the stimulus of necessity and the desire of pleasing.

The first words were, no doubt, Interjections; for it would be natural for men, however savage or ignorant of the use of words, to employ exclamations for the purpose of expressing

sounds, and how in the number of their letters? How many letters does the English alphabet contain? The French? Italian? Spanish? Russian? Hebrew, Samaritan, Syrlac, and Chaldean? Arabic? Persian and Egyptian? Turkish ? Georgian Armenian? Sanscrit? Abyssinian? Indian, or Brahmanic?

§ 15. Is it probable that a complete system of language was given to man? How has it been brought to its present perfection? What words, is it supposed, were first

their sudden emotions. The words that next came into use did not probably denote the name of any particular object; but were such as expressed a whole sentence, indicative of desires or fears, or intended to convey some important news or information; as, the enemy is coming, the victory is ours.

Individual objects next engaged attention. The savage lived, we will say, in the midst of a forest. Inasmuch as he derived his means of subsistence partly from certain trees which it contained, he was soon compelled, in his intercourse with others, to allude to them, and represent them by some name, or, as grammarians would say, Noun. This appellation he at first probably applied to all similar objects. It was not till experience taught him the difference between oaks, cypresses, cedars, &c., and their respective peculiarities, that gave them specific names. As it often became necessary to allude to more than one, it was not long before a distinct form was adopted to denote the plural number.

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Before all the visible objects of creation had been thus arranged into classes and distinguished by general appellations, and before experience and observation had assigned particular names to the various species, it must have been necessary for men occasionally to allude to a specific object in contradistinction to the rest of its class. To identify it, therefore, intelligibly to another, they would have to distinguish it by stating either its distinctive qualities or the relations in which it stood to other objects. Thus, if they desired to allude to a tree of particular size, or one standing by a spring, instead of characterizing it as the fir or the elm, they would naturally say, the large tree, the tree by the spring. In this way were formed Adjectives, which generally express quality, and Prepositions, which indicate the relations subsisting between Nouns (often called substantives) and other words.

employed! Explain the reason. What words next came into use? Give an example Describe the way in which Nouns were formed. When were specific names coined? What distinct form was afterwards adopted, and why? Describe the necessity which called for the Adjective. Give an example. What other class of words had the same

Though several important steps had by this time been taken towards the formation of a complete system of language, yet the means which it afforded of distinguishing objects were still imperfect; for, when any substantive was used in dis course, as tree, river, horse, how was it to be known which of the many individuals embraced in the general class, which tree, river, or horse, was meant? When the thing alluded to was within the range of sight, it could without difficulty be pointed out by a movement of the hand; but, when this was not the case, it became necessary to invent words by which the particular object intended could be specified. Hence arose the Adjective pronouns this and that, and the Article the.

Verbs must necessarily have been coeval with the first attempts towards the formation of language, as no affirmation can be expressed without the assistance of this part of speech. We seldom speak except to express our opinion that something is or is not, that some act does or does not take place; and the word which affirms the fact or state is always a Verb.

Thus, then, we have seen Interjections, Nouns, Adjectives Prepositions, Articles, Adjective Pronouns, and Verbs, suc cessively called for by the wants of men, and consequently invented as component parts of language. Personal Pronouns were probably the creation of a later age. A young child, it has been observed, almost invariably repeats the noun instead of using the substitute. Speaking of himself, a child would be likely to say, "Give Johnny Johnny's whistle", and not "Give me my whistle." So great, indeed, seems to be the disinclination of youthful minds to multiply terms that it is often found quite difficult to teach them the use of the pro

origin? Give an example. Give an account of the origin of the Adjective Pronouns this and that. What Article originated in the same way? What class of words is required for the expression of affirmations? When did they come into use?

Of what class of words have we thus far traced the origin? What part of speech was the creation of a later age? Are children generally inclined to use the personal