language, even when they could express their meaning equally well by means of the latter. Both these causes operated with special force in the early stages of society. The barrenness of language made it necessary to use words in a figurative sense; while imagination, then more vivid than in subsequent ages, gave a decided preference to terms so employed. As it was in the infancy of society, so we find it generally to be with savage tribes. New objects strongly impress their minds. They are governed by imagination and passion, rather than reason; and this is shown in their language. The North American Indian tongues afford striking illustrations of this fact. Bold, picturesque, and metaphorical, they abound in allusions to material objects, particularly such as are most striking in a wild and solitary life. An Indian chief, in an ordinary harangue to his tribe, uses more metaphors than a European would employ in an epic poem. As a language progresses in refinement, precision is more regarded, and there is a tendency to give every object a distinct name of its own. Still, figurative words continue to occupy a considerable place. We find, on examination, that, while there are some which, by reason of frequent use, have come to be regarded as purely literal expressions, such as a clear head, a hard heart, and the like; there are many others which, in a greater or less degree, retain their figurative character and impart to style the peculiar effect described above. As examples, we may point to such phrases as the following: "to enter upon a subject,” “to follow out an argument,” “to stir up strife,” "to move the feelings," &c. In the use of such expressions, the correct writer will always carry out the figure; that is, will regard the allusion on which it is based, and introduce in the same connection nothing inconsistent therewith. One for instance, "be sheltered under the patronage of a great man"; but it would be wrong to say, "sheltered under the mask of dissimulation," for a mask does not shelter, but conceals. may, § 322. ADVANTAGES.—The advantages which accrue from the use of figures are as follows: these pauses operate with special force? Why? In what languages do they also operate strongly? What tongues afford striking illustrations of this fact? What is the character of these Indian tongues? As a language progresses in refinement, what tendency prevails? What follows, as regards figurative expressions? What do we find, in process of time, with respect to them? In the use of figurative expressions, what must the writer be careful to do? Illustrate this. I They enrich language by increasing its facilities of expression. By their means, words and phrases are multiplied, so that all kinds of ideas, the minutest differences, and the nicest shades of thought, can be distinctly and accurately expressed. II. They dignify style. Words and phrases to which the ear is accustomed are often too colloquial and familiar to be employed in connection with elevated subjects. When treating of the latter, we should be greatly at a loss were it not for figures. Properly used, they have the same effect on language that is produced by the rich and splendid dress of a person of rank; that is, by imparting a general air of magnificence, they exact admiration and respect. Assistance of this kind is often necessary in prose; in poetry, it is indispensable. To say the sun rises, for instance, is trite, and fails to awaken any pleasure in the mind; but the same thought is pleasing in the highest degree as figuratively expressed by Thomson: "But yonder comes the powerful king of day, "all men are So, what a contrast is presented by the plain proposition, subject alike to death," and the same sentiment as expressed by Horace: "With equal pace, impartial Fate Knocks at the palace and the cottage gate." III. They bring before the mind two objects simultaneously yet without confusion. We see one thing in another, and this is always a source of pleasure. In nothing does the mind more gladly employ itself than in detecting and tracing resemblances. When, for example, for youth we substitute the morning of life, the fancy is entertained with two ideas at once,—the early period of exist ence, and the opening of the day; each of which has its own associa tions, and awakens its peculiar train of images. The fancy is thus ex § 822. What is the first advantage resulting from the use of figures? What, the second? When we are treating of elevated subjects, what words must not be used? In such cases, to what must we have recourse? To what is the effect of figurative language compared? In what department of composition is assistance of this kind indispensable? Show, by means of two examples, the difference in effect between trite and figurative language? What is the third advantage gained by the use of figures? Ex cited in a two fold degree; and this double pleasure is enhanced not little by the evident resemblance between the objects compared. IV. Again, as already seen, figures frequently convey the meaning more clearly and forcibly than plain language. This is particularly true in the case of abstract conceptions, which, in a greater or less degree, they represent as sensible objects, surrounding them with such circumstances as enable the mind fully to comprehend them. A well-chosen figure, indeed, not unfrequently, with the force of an argument, carries conviction to the mind of the hearer; as in the following illustration from Young: "When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and noxious." § 323. RULES.-In the use of figures, rules are of service, as they are in every other department of composition. There is no force in the argument that they are unnecessary, because people who have never heard of a rule use figures properly every day. We constantly meet with persons who sing agreeably and correctly without knowing a note of the gamut; is it, therefore, improper to reduce the notes to a scale, or unnecessary for a musician to study the principles of his art? The ornaments of composition are certainly as capable of improvement as the ear or the voice; and the only means of ensuring this improvement are careful study of the various rules founded on nature and experience, and constant practice with reference to the principles they establish. § 324. USE.-Though the advantages arising from the use of figurative language have been dwelt on at some length, it must not be supposed, either that its frequent use is absolutely essential to beauty of composition, or that figures alone, without other merits, can constitute such beauty. As the body is more important than the dress, so the thought is plain and illustrate this point. Fourthly, how do figures frequently convey a writer's meaning? In the case of what is this particularly true? To what is a well-chosen figure often equivalent in force? Give an illustration from Young. § 323. What is said of rules for the use of figures? What argument is urged against them? Expose the fallacy of this argument. § 824. What must not be supposed with respect to figurative language? Which is more important,-the thought, or its dress? No figure of more moment than the mode of expressing it. can render a cold or empty composition interesting; while, on the other hand, if a sentence is sublime or pathetic, it can support itself without borrowed assistance. LESSON XLIX. EXERCISES ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. EXERCISE I. In the following passages, change the figurative to plain language: EXAMPLE. Figurative.-The king of terrors. The waves are asleep on the bosom of ocean. Plain.-Death. The ocean is calm. 1. The morning of life;-the veil of night;-a fiery temper;-a deep thinker;-a light disposition;-a cold heart;-a warm friend:-an attack of sickness;-a thin audience;-high hopes;-a hard lot. 2. Athens was now at the pinnacle of glory. 3. The sea swallows many a vessel. 4. Beside the warrior slept his bow. 5. Guilt is wedded to misery. 6. Homer's genius soars higher than Virgil's. 7. Some great men are noted for the roughness of their behavior. 8. Time had left his footprints on her brow. 9. The breath of spring infuses new life into the vegetable world. 10. The sanguine man is sometimes rudely wakened from his dreams. 11. Even at imaginary woes the heart will sometimes ache. 12. Abstinence is the only talisman against disease. 13. This lamentation touched his heart. 14. We should not be cast down by light afflic tions. 15. "Adversity's cold frosts will soon be o'er: 16. "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, EXERCISE II. In each of the following passages, introduce figurative lan guage without altering the sense. Punctuate the sentences so formed, and be careful to carry out the figure properly. The student may form figures of his own, or may employ those suggested by the words in parentheses. EXAMPLE. Plain-The uncompassionate man has no sympathy for the unfortunate. Figurative. The hard-hearted man turns a deaf ear to the unfortunate. 1. The mind should be kept uncontaminated (weeds, garden). 2. Let us be virtuous, and not yield to the temptations of pleasure (path, listen, voice). 3. With the ancient Stoics it was a principle never to indulge their appetites unduly (overstep). 4. Suspicion is a source of great unhappiness (poison). 5. Providence has wisely ordained that we shall not know the future (sealed). 6. Calumnious reports are often circulated about those whose lives afford the least reason for them (aim, arrows). 7. He is dying (tide). 8. Fortune, though it may involve us in temporal difficulties, can not make us permanently unhappy, if we do no evil. 9. Time makes many changes. 10. The young man, on leaving college, should pause a moment for serious thought before engaging in active life (launching). 11. We should constantly have regard to the requirements of truth and justice. 12. We meet with few utterly stupid persons; with still fewer noble geniuses: the generality of mankind are between the two extremes. 13. Often, when apparently gay, the heart is sad. 14. Seldom do the old form very ardent friendships. 15. Our worst enemies are our own evil passions. 16 The rising sun shines on the tops of the mountains (gilds). 17. The lightning is seen first on one peak and then on another (leaps). 18. He is in love. LESSON L. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 8325. FIGURES of rhetoric are intentional deviations from the ordinary application of words. They are constantly occurring in every department of composition, and are a source of life and beauty to style. Rhetoricians have devoted much attention to defining, analyzing, and classifying them ; and, by making slight shades of difference sufficient ground for the formation of new classes, have succeeded in enumerating more than two hundred and fifty. Such minuteness is of no practical use; and we shall limit our consideration to § 325. What are figures of rhetoric? How many have been enumerated by rhetor icians? How have they succeeded in making so many? How many are here con |