been brought in use during the last hundred years.-Let your actions correspond to your professions.-The Anglo-Saxons soon quarrelled between themselves.-Virgil has often been compared to Homer.-Good humor may be compared with the sun, which sheds light on all around. UNDER 229. It is well when pupils love, and entertain respect for, their teachers.-Music naturally has a great charm for, and power over, the young. No one ought to injure, or wound the feelings of, his neighbor.-Poetry has a natural alliance with, and often strongly excites, our noblest emotions.-Endeavor to alter, or rather prevent the introduction of, so pernicious a fashion.-Good men are not always found, as regards their views and conduct, consistent with, but, on the other hand, are often opposed to, each other. PART III. RHETORIC. LESSON XXXIII. PROVINCE AND OBJECTS OF RHETORIC. § 230. The word RHETORIC is derived from the Greek verb péw, to speak, and in its primary signification had reference solely to the art of oratory; in this sense, moreover, we find it generally used by ancient writers. As, however, most of the rules relating to the composition of matter intended for delivery are equally applicable to other kinds of writing, in the course of time the meaning of the term was naturally extended; so that even as early as in the age of Aristotle it was used with reference to productions not designed for public recitation. At the present day, Rhetoric, in its widest acceptation comprehends all prose composition; and it is with this signification we here use the term: in its narrowest sense, it is limited to persuasive speaking. § 230. What is the derivation of the word rhetoric? What did it originally signify! To what has it since been extended? In its widest acceptation, what does it comprehend? § 231. The ancients thought it necessary for one who would master this subject to study with care everything connected with the great object proposed, the conviction of the hearer or reader; and with this view some rhetoricians introduced into their system Treatises on Law, Morals, Politics, &c., on the ground that no one could write or speak well on these subjects without properly understanding them. Quintilian even insists on virtue as essential to the perfect orator, because an audience is necessarily influenced by the considera tion that candor, truth, and uprightness, distinguish the per son addressing them. This, however, is assuming too much. As the art of architecture has nothing to do with the collection of materials, though without materials it is impossible to build; so a knowledge of the subject of which the orator or essayist is to treat, constitutes no part of the art of Rhetoric, though essential to its successful employment: nor does virtue, whatever unction it may impart to the words of a writer or speaker, fall within the province of this art any more than wealth or rank, which are also likely to produce a prejudice in his favor. Some modern writers, in imitation of the ancients, and with a greater show of justice, have introduced Invention as a division of Rhetoric; insisting that even perfection in the art of expressing, arranging, and beautifying, is valueless, unless the thoughts to be so treated are judicious and appropriate. But the same objection here applies. Rhetoric, properly speaking, has no reference to the creation of thoughts, but merely to the manner of expressing them. The rules and principles of Invention, however, though independent of the art under consideration, must be carefully studied in connection with it, by all who would give effect to their compositions. This subject will hereafter receive attention; we shall first proceed to consider Rhetoric proper. § 232. Rhetoric may be regarded as either a science or an § 231. What did the ancients regard as essential to the mastery of this art? What did some rhetoricians introduce into their systems? What does Quintilian consider essential to the perfect orator? Is this just? Illustrate the case by a comparison with the art of architecture. What have some modern writers introduced as a division of rhetoric? What objection is there to this? What is said of the rules and principles of invention ? art. As a science, it investigates, analyses, and defines, the principles of good writing; as an art, it enables us to apply these principles, or in other words teaches us the best method of communicating our thoughts. All art is founded on science. The relation between the two is that of offspring and parent. Valuable knowledge always leads to some practical result; and practical skill is rarely of general utility or extended application, unless it originates in knowledge. On the most sublime of sciences, for instance, theology and ethics, is founded the most important of arts, the art of living. So, from abstract mathematical science are derived the arts of the surveyor, the architect, the navigator, and the civil engineer. Nor can it be denied that their practical application in these arts constitutes the chief value of mathematical studies; and that, were they not so applied, they would be as much neglected as they are now cultivated. In like manner, it is on account of its practical utility that Rhetoric is deemed worthy of a prominent place among the branches of a polite education. § 233. As an art, Rhetoric has been classed by some among the useful arts, the object of which is to aid or benefit mankind; by others, among the elegant arts, which aim simply to please. It seems, however, to partake of the nature of both; and may therefore with propriety be denominated a mixed art. Both the elegant and the useful arts are founded on experience, but differ in their origin and growth. The latter, being the offspring of necessity, are cultivated even in the ruder stages of society; whereas the former have their origin in leisure, and are disregarded until provision has been made for the bodily wants. The useful arts, however, although first to originate in a community, are slower than the fine arts in their progress towards perfection. Thus, modern workmen immeasurably excel the ancients in the art of ship-building; and how far § 232. How may rhetoric be regarded? As a science, what is its province? What, as an art? What is the relation of art to science? On what sciences is the art of living founded? From abstract mathematical science what arts are derived? What constitutes the chief value of mathematics? In like manner, why is rhetoric deemed an important branch of education? $233. What is the object of the useful arts? What, of the elegant arts? To which does rhetoric belong? On what are both the useful and the elegant arts founded? In what do they differ? At what period of a nation's history do they respectively originate? Show the difference in their development and progress towards perfection. Illus this superiority may be carried by means of future discoveries and im provements, no one can say. In literature, however, we find the reverse to be the case; while naval architecture was yet comparatively in its infancy, the art of composition reached so high a degree of perfection among the Greeks, that modern times, with all their genius and learning, have produced nothing superior to the master-pieces of antiquity. In the rapidity of its development, as well as the zeal with which it endeavors to please by elaborate embellishment, Rhetoric partakes of the nature of the elegant arts; it resembles the useful arts in its utility, we may almost say its absolute necessity to mankind, as facilitating the means of communication. § 234. From the study of Rhetoric, two great advantages result first, it enables us to discern faults and beauties in the compositions of others; and, secondly, it teaches us how to express and embellish our own thoughts, so as to produce the most forcible impression. The first of these results, were there no other, would be sufficient recompense for the labor involved in pursuing a rhetorical course. Nor, it must be remembered, is this labor great. The questions that arise exercise our reason without fatiguing it. They lead to inquiries, acute but not painful; profound, but neither dry nor difficult. They keep the mind active, but do not require from it the effort necessary for the investigation of purely abstract truth. By a trifling expenditure of time and attention, we are thus enabled to judge of literary productions for ourselves, to weigh in the balance of taste and criticism, and form our opinions independently of others. We are not obliged to give or withhold our admiration as the world or the critic may decide. Nor is this independence the only advantage gained. The study of belles-lettres* furnishes a never-failing means of entertainment for our * BELLES-LETTRES, the general term used in the French language to denote the art of which we are treating and kindred subjects, is exceedingly indefinite in its signification, being by some writers limited to rhetoric and poetry, and by others made to embrace natural philosophy trate this by a comparison of naval architecture with literature. In what respect does rhetoric resemble the elegant arts? In what, the useful arts? § 234. What advantages result from the study of rhetoric? What is said of the first of these? Is much labor involved in pursuing a rhetorical course? What does a trifling expenditure of time enable us to do? What other advantage is gained? How is the pleasure received from the creations of art greatly increased? What term do the French apply to rhetoric and kindred branches? What subjects |