latter) of two contiguous vowels, shows that they do not form a diphthong, but must be pronounced separately; as, zoölogy, aëronaut, phaëton. The word is of Greck origin, and signifies a division.

IX. The CEDILLA is a mark sometimes placed under the letter c (c) standing before a and o, to show that, contrary to analogy, it has the sound of s. This mark seldom occurs except in certain French words not yet fully naturalized in English; as, façade, garçon.

X. The DOUBLE COMMA (,,) is used to denote that a word is to be supplied from a line above in the space immediately beneath it. Names of persons, however, are generally repeat

Sometimes inverted commas (“) are preferred for this purpose.

XI. LEADERS (.....) are dots placed at short intervals, to carry the eye from words at the commencement of a line to matter at its end with which they are connected. It is chiefly in tables of contents and indexes of books that leaders are required. Thus

XII. The CARET (A), used only in manuscript, shows where interlined words are to be introduced; as, "No man is exempted from the ills of life." The name of this mark is a Latin word, meaning it is wanting.

A

Where is the diæresis placed? What does it show? From what language is the word derived, and what does it signify?

Under what letter is the cedilla placed? Before what vowels? In what words? Where and for what is the double comma employed? What other mark is preferred by some for this purpose?

What are leaders? Whero, principally, are they required?

Where is the caret used? What does it show? What is the origin, and what the meaning, of the word?

XIII. There are, also, certain characters which may with propriety be here enumerated.

In Prices Current, Book-keepings, &c., we meet with for per, a, each, and @, at, to. In almanacs, treatises on Astronomy, and the like, the following marks constantly occur:

TECHNICAL TERMS PERTAINING TO BOOKS.

§ 210. NAMES OF Books.-A book is said to be in folio, or as abbreviated fol., when the sheets of which it is composed are folded once, each making two leaves, or four pages. The size of a folio volume, and indeed of all the others enumerated below, depends on that of the sheet; but, with the same sheet, a book of folio form is twice as large as cne in quarto, and four times the size of an octavo, as will be presently seen. Formerly, almost all books were printed in folio; but the weight of such volumes, and the difficulty of handling them, rendering them decidedly objectionable, they have gradually gone out of fashion; and now no book is published in folio, unless a large page is required for exhibiting illustrations, or some similar purpose.

A quarto, or 4to volume is one whose sheets are folded into four leaves or eight pages. An octavo, or 8vo, consists of sheets divided into eight leaves or sixteen pages each; and so a duodecimo, or 12mo, a 16mo, 18mo, 24mo, 32mo, 48mo, and 64mo, denote volumes composed respectively of sheets folded into twelve, sixteen, eighteen, twenty-four, thirty-two, forty-eight, and sixty-four leaves.

What does the character denote? What, the character @? Learn the astronomical marks.

§ 210. When is a book said to be in folio? On what does the size of a folio volume depend? Were folio volumes formerly more or less in vogue than at present? Why have they gone out of fashion? What is meant by a quarto volume? an octavo? a

12mo? a 16mo? a 24mo? a 32mo' a 48mo? a 64mo?

§ 211. KINDS OF TYPE.-There are different sizes of type of which the following are most used :

English, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.
Pica, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.
Small Pica, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.

Long Primer, abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.

Putting matter in type is technically called composing, or setting up. The amount of matter composed is estimated in ems, or spaces of the length of the letter m; which differ, of course, according to the size of the type employed.

By Leads are meant thin plates of type-metal, with which the lines are sometimes separated. When these plates are employed, the matter is said to be leaded; when not, solid.

212. ITALICS, so called from their having been first used by Italian printers, are letters inclined to the right, like those in which this clause is printed; and are indicated in manuscript by a line drawn under the words to be italicized. They are used for emphatic, important, and contrasted terms; for words and sentences introduced to illustrate rules; for names of newspapers, vessels, &c.; and for words and quotations from foreign languages.

As no more definite rule for their use can be given, the composer must exercise his judgment in deciding when they may with propriety be employed. It is necessary only to caution him against using them too freely. Like every thing else, when made familiar, they lose thei effect; and, besides offending the eye, tend rather to perplex the reader than to aid him in determining what is really emphatic.

In the English Bible, italics are not used for emphatic words; but

§ 211. Mention the different sizes of type, in order. What is meant by composing or setting up, type? How is the amount of composed matter estimated? What is an em? What are leads? What is meant by leaded matter? What, by solid?

§ 212. Describe italics. Why are they so called? How are they indicated in manuscript? For what are they used? What is the effect of employing them too freely! In the Bible, what do italics denote?

for such as are wanting in the original Hebrew or Greek, and were introduced by the translators to complete or explain the meaning.

§213. RUNNING TITLES, or HEAD-LINES, consist of a word or words placed at the top of a page to show the subject of which it treats. They are usually printed in capitals or small capitals. Such headings, when placed over chapters and paragraphs, are known as CAPTIONS and SUB-HEADS; and as SIDEHEADS, when commencing the first line of the paragraph to which they refer.

§ 214. The first page of a book contains the title, and is therefore styled the TITLE-PAGE. A plate facing it is known as the FRONTISPIECE. A small ornamental engraving sometimes found on the title-page, and often at the commencement of chapters, is called a VIGNETTE. This term means a little vine; and the engraving in question was so designated from the fact that originally a vine, or a wreath of vine-leaves, was the favorite form for such ornaments.

In old books, printers were in the habit of placing under the last line of each page the word with which the fol lowing page was to commence, either as a guide in the arrangement of the pages, or to prevent hesitation on the part of the reader while turning from one to another. These are called CATCH-WORDS: they are now no longer used.

$215. WHATEVER merits of style or thought an author may possess, or whatever applause he may temporarily receive, he cannot expect permanently to hold an honorable position in

§ 213. Of what do running titles, or head-lines, consist? How are they usually printed? When placed over chapters and paragraphs, what are such headings called What is meant by side-heads?

§ 214. What is meant by the title-page of a book? What, by the frontispiece? What is a vignette? What is the meaning of this term, and why was the engraving in question so called?

In old books, what was placed at the bottom of each page? Waat were these words called?

literature, unless he is thoroughly acquainted with the rules of grammar, and observes them in composition. Without a preparatory knowledge of this art, but little benefit can be derived from exercises in rhetoric. Before entering on the latter study, therefore, it is expected that the student will not only have made himself familiar with the principles of language in general, but will also have devoted particular attention to the grammar of his own tongue: it is presupposed that he is well versed in its etymology; that he can analyze or parse its sentences; and that he has intelligently applied its rules in the correction of false syntax. Yet, even after such preparation, when he comes to the construction of original sentences, he will inevitably find that in guarding against the violation of one principle he often overlooks another; and that, notwithstanding his utmost care, he is occasionally betrayed into inaccuracies, and even solecisms. If this is the case with one who is conversant with grammar (and that it is, the pages of many well-educated writers conclusively show), how liable to error must those be whose acquaintance with the art is imperfect or superficial! While the latter are advised to pursue a complete course of syntax with the aid of some standard textbook, the author has deemed it proper to insert here for their benefit, as well as that of all whose memory may need refreshing on these essentia! points, a few rules covering those cases in which he has found that beginners are most liable to err.

§ 216. When two or more adjectives belong to a noun with which there is occasior. to use the article also, the latter is placed before the first adjective alone if reference is made to a single object, but before each if several objects are referred to. Thus: "A white and red flag" signifies one flag, partly red and partly white; "a white and a red flag" means two flags, one red and the other white. Do not, therefore, omit the article before the last adjective, unless it is clear that but one thing is intended.

§ 217. The possessive case and the word that governs it must not be

215. What is essential to an honorable position in literature? What is expected of the student before he enters on the study of rhetoric?

§ 216. State the principle relating to the use of the article before a ncun with which Geveral adjectives are connected. (Give examples in each case.)