§ 116. RULE VI.—When several long clauses occur in succession, all having common dependence on some other clause or word, they must be separated by semicolons; as, “If we neglected no opportunity of doing good; if we fed the hungry and ministered to the sick; if we gave up our own luxuries, to secure necessary comforts for the destitute; though no man might be aware of our generosity, yet in the applause of our own conscience we would have an ample reward.”

§ 117. If the clauses are short, they may be separated by commas; as, "If I succeed, if I reach the pinnacle of my ambition, you shall share my triumph."

EXERCISE.

Insert in the following sentences, wherever required by the rules, all the points thus far considered :—

UNDER 111. Air was regarded as a simple substance by ancient philosophers but the experiments of Cavendish prove it to be composed of oxygen and nitrogen- The gem has lost its sparkle scarce a vestige of its former brilliancy remains -The porcupine is fond of climbing trees and for this purpose he is furnished with very long claws-The Laplanders have little idea of religion or a Supreme Being the greater part of them are idolaters and their superstition is as profound as their worship is contemptible

UNDER 112. The Jews ruin themselves at their Passover the Moors, at their marriages and the Christians, in their law-suits - The poisoned valley of Java is twenty miles in extent, and of considerable width it presents a most desolate appearance, being entirely destitute of vegetation The poet uses words, indeed but they are merely the instruments of his art, not its objects Weeds and thistles, ever enemies of the husbandman, must be rooted out from the garden of the mind good seed must be sown and the growing crop must be carefully attended to, if we would have a plenteous harvest

UNDER § 113. The true order of learning should be as follows first, what is necessary second, what is useful and third, what is ornamental God hath set some in the church first, apostles secondarily, prophets thirdly, teachers after that, miracles then, gifts of healings, helps, governments, diversities of tongues -The duties of man are twofold first, those that he owes to his Creator secondly, those due to his fellow-men paths open before every youth on the one hand, that of vice, with its unreal and short-lived pleasures on the other, that of virtue, with the genuine and permanent happiness it ensures

Two

UNDER § 114. We have three great bulwarks of liberty viz., schools

$116. Repeat Rule VI.

§ 117. If the dependent clauses are short, how may they be separated?

colleges, and universities-There are three cases the nominative, the possessive, and the objective-According to a late writer, London surpasses all other great cities in four particulars size, commerce, fogs, and pickpockets

UNDER § 115. After interjections, pronouns of the first person are generally used in the objective case as, "Ah me" Those of the second person, on the other hand, follow interjections in the nominative as, "O thou"

UNDER $116. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with invincible resolution who resists the sorest temptations from within and without who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully who is calmest in storms, and most fearless under menace and frowns and whose reliance on truth, on virtue, and on God, is most unfaltering -The delightful freedom of Cowper's manner, so acceptable to those long accustomed to a poetical school of which the radical fault was constraint his noble and tender morality his fervent piety his glowing and well-expressed patriotism his descriptions, unparalleled in vividness and accuracy his playful humor and powerful satire,-all conspired to render him one of the most popular poets of his day

UNDER $117. Read not for the purpose of contradicting and confuting nor of believing and taking for granted nor of finding material for argument and conversation but in order to weigh and consider the thoughts of others - When I have gone from earth when my place is vacant when my pilgrimage is over will thy faithful heart still keep my memory green

MISCELLANEOUS. This wide-spread republic is the future monument to Washington Maintain its independence uphold its constitution preserve its union defend its liberty The ancients feared death we, thanks to Christianity, fear only dying -The study of mathematics cultivates the reason that of the languages, at the same time, the reason and the taste The former gives power to the mind the latter, both power and flexibility The former, by itself, would prepare us for a state of certainties which nowhere exists the latter, for a state of probabilities, which is that of common life-Woman in Italy is trained to shrink from the open air and the public gaze she is no rider is never in at the death in a fox-hunt is no hand at a whip, if her life depended on it she never keeps a stall at a fancy fair never takes the lead at a debating club she never addresses a stranger, except, perhaps, behind a mask in carnival-season her politics are limited to wearing tri-color ribbons and refusing an Austrian as a partner for the waltz she is a dunce and makes no mystery of it a coward, and glories in it -Lord Chatham made an administration so checkered and speckled he put together a piece of joinery so crossly indented and whimsically dovetailed he constructed a cabinet so variously inlaid with whigs and tories patriots and courtiers, that it was utterly unsafe to touch and unsure to stand on —Helmets are cleft on high blood bursts and smokes around

LESSON XX.

THE COMMA.

§ 118. The word COMMA means that which is out off; and the mark so called denotes the least degree of separation that requires a point. In its present form, the comma is not found in manuscripts anterior to the ninth century; a straight line drawn vertically between the words was formerly used in its place.

§ 119. GENERAL RULE.-The comma is used to separate words, phrases, clauses, and short members, closely connected with the rest of the sentence, but requiring separation by some point in consequence of the construction or arrange

ment.

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

§ 120. Words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, are said to be PARENTHETICAL when they are not essential to the meaning of a sentence and are introduced in such a way as to break the connection between its component parts. They are generally introduced near the commencement of a sentence, between a subject and its verb; but they may occupy other positions. Every such parenthetical expression must be separated from the leading proposition by a comma before and after it.

As these expressions are of constant occurrence, and are always punctuated in the same manner, with a comma on each side of them, it is important that the pupil should be able to recognize them without difficulty. The following examples contain respectively a parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, and clause, printed in italics; which, it will be

§ 118. What does the word comma mean? What degree of separation does the mark so called denote? In its present form, when was the comma first used? Before that time, what was employed in its stead?

$119. Repeat the General Rule.

120. When are words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, said to be parenthetical? Where are they generally introduced? How must every parenthetical expression be

seen, may be omitted without injury to the sense, and stand, in every case, between the subject and its verb:

EXAMPLES OF PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

1. Napoleon, unquestionably, was a man of genius.

2. There is, as it were, an atmospheric maelstrom all about us. 3. History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons.

4. Thomson, who was blessed with a strong and copious fancy, drew his images from nature itself.

RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS.

§ 121. The mere introduction of adjuncts and clauses be tween a subject and its verb, does not make them parentheti cal. Sometimes they form an essential part of the logical sub. ject, and cannot be omitted without rendering the sense incomplete. In that case, they are not parenthetical, but RESTRICTIVE; and there must be no comma between them and that which they restrict. Whether a comma is to be placed after such restrictive expressions, depends on principles here. after explained.

Examples of restrictive adjuncts and clauses are furnished below. The pupil is requested to compare them carefully with the examples of parenthetical expressions just given, and to make himself so familiar with their distinguishing features that he can at once determine to which of the two classes any given adjunct or clause belongs. Few sentences occur without expressions of this kind; and, as they must have a comma on each side of them if parenthetical, but none before them if restrictive, constant mistakes will be made unless the distinction is thoroughly understood. The criterion is, will the meaning of the sentence be preserved if the expression is omitted? If so, it is paren. thetical; if not, restrictive.

EXAMPLES OF RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS.

1. The love of money is the root of all evil.

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

2. A man tormented by a guilty conscience can not be happy. Those who sleep late lose the best part of the day.

cut off from the rest of the sentence? Give examples, and show in each case how you know the expression to be parenthetical.

§121. Besides its position, what is necessary to make an expression parenthetical? When are adjuncts and clauses called restrictive? From what must restrictive adjuncts and clauses not be cut off by the comma? What is the criterion for determining whether a sentence is parenthetical or restrictive? Give examples, and show in each caso how you know the expression to be restrictive.

RULE 1-PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

§ 122. A comma must be placed before and after every parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, clause, and expression; see the examples in § 120.

The words referred to in this rule are chiefly conjunctions and ad verbs. Those of most frequent occurrence are as follows:

Any of the clauses enumerated in § 43 may be used parenthetically. § 123. A comma must be placed before and after parenthetical subjects introduced by as well as; as, "Industry, as well as genius, is es‐ sential to the production of great works."" Printing, as well as every other important invention, has wrought great changes in the world."

§ 124. A comma must be placed on each side of negative adjuncts and clauses, when introduced parenthetically by way of contrast or op position; as, "Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles."

If, however, the word expressing negation is removed from the ad.

§ 122. Repeat Rule I. What parts of speech, for the most part, are the words here referred to? Enumerate some of the principal. Mention the phrases most frequently introduced parenthetically. Give some of the commonest parenthetical adjuncts. What clauses may be used parenthetically?

§ 123. What subjects are introduced parenthetically, and fall under this rule?

$124. State the principle that applies to negative adjuncts and clauses. What change in the punctuation must be made, if the word expressing negation is removed