apprehend, find any easier access, than by that track which the nature of the subject itself obviously indicates to us.

It is the peculiar design of the figurative style, taken in the sense in which I have explained it, to exhibit objects in a clearer or more striking, in a sublimer or more forcible manner. Since, therefore, whatever is employed with a view to the illustration and elevation of another subject, ought itself to be as familiar and obvious, at the same time as grand and magnificent as possible, it becomes necessary to adduce images from those objects with which both the writers and the persons they address are well acquainted, and which have been constantly esteemed of the highest dignity and importance. On the other hand, if the reader be accustomed to habits of life totally different from those of the author, and be conversant only with different objects; in that case, many descriptions and sentiments, which were clearly illustrated and magnificently expressed by the one, will appear to the other mean and obscure, harsh and unnatural: and this will be the case more or less, in proportion as they differ or are more remote from each other in time, situation, customs sacred or profane, in fine, in all the forms of public and private life. On this account difficulties must occur in the perusal of almost every work of literature, and particularly in poetry, where every thing is depicted and illustrated with the greatest variety and abundance of imagery: they must be still more numerous in such of the poets as are foreign and ancient; in the orientals above all foreigners, they being the farthest removed from our customs and manners; and of all the orientals, more especially in the Hebrews, theirs being confessedly the most ancient compositions extant. To all who apply themselves to the study of their poetry, for the reasons which I have enumerated, difficulties and inconveniencies must necessarily occur. Not only the antiquity of these writings forms a principal obstruction in many respects; but the manner of living, of speaking, of thinking, which prevailed in those times, will be found altogether different from our customs and habits. There is, therefore, great danger, lest, viewing them from an improper situation, and rashly estimating all things by our own standard, we form an erroneous judgment.

Of this kind of mistake we are to be always aware, and these inconveniencies are to be counteracted by all possible

diligence: nor is it enough to be acquainted with the language of this people, their manners, discipline, rites, and ceremonies; we must even investigate their inmost sentiments, the manner and connexion of their thoughts; in one word, we must see all things with their eyes, estimate all things by their opinions; we must endeavour as much as possible to read Hebrew as the Hebrews would have read it. We must act as the astronomers with regard to that branch of their science which is called comparative, who, in order to form a more perfect idea of the general system and its different parts, conceive themselves as passing through and surveying the whole universe, migrating from one planet to another, and becoming for a short time inhabitants of each. Thus they clearly contemplate, and accurately estimate, what each possesses peculiar to itself, with respect to situation, celerity, satellites, and its relation to the rest: thus they distinguish what and how different an appearance of the universe is exhibited, according to the different situations from which it is contemplated. In like manner, he who would perceive and feel the peculiar and interior elegancies of the Hebrew poetry, must imagine himself exactly situated as the persons for whom it was written, or even as the writers themselves: he must not attend to the ideas which, on a cursory reading, certain words would obtrude upon his mind; he is to feel them as a Hebrew hearing or delivering the same words, at the same time, and in the same country. As far as he is able to pursue this plan, so far he will comprehend their force and excellence. This, indeed, in many cases it will not be easy to do; in some it will be impossible; in all, however, it ought to be regarded, and in those passages particularly in which the figurative style is found to prevail.

In Metaphor, for instance, (and what I remark concerning it may be applied to all the rest of the figures, since they are all naturally allied to each other), two circumstances are to be especially regarded, on which its whole force and elegance will depend: first, that resemblance which is the groundwork of the figurative and parabolic style, and which will perhaps be sufficiently apparent even from a common and indistinct knowledge of the objects; and, secondly, the beauty or dignity of the idea which is substituted for another; and this is a circumstance of unusual nicety. An opinion of grace and dignity results frequently,

not so much from the objects themselves in which these qualities are supposed to exist, as from the disposition of the spectator; or from some slight and obscure relation or connexion which they have with some other things. Thus it sometimes happens, that the external form and lineaments. may be sufficiently apparent, though the original and intrinsic beauty and elegance be totally erased by time.

For these reasons it will perhaps not be an useless undertaking, when we treat of the metaphors of the sacred poets, to enter more fully into the nature of their poetical imagery in general, of which the metaphor constitutes so principal a part. By this mode of proceeding we shall be enabled, not only to discern the general beauty and elegance of this figure in the Hebrew poetry, but the peculiar elegance which it frequently possesses, if we only consider how forcible it must have appeared to those for whom it was originally intended, and what a connexion and agreement these figurative expressions must have had with their circumstances, feelings, and opinions. Thus many expressions and allusions, which even now appear beautiful, must, when considered in this manner, shine with redoubled lustre; and many, which now strike the superficial reader as coarse, mean, or deformed, must appear graceful, elegant, and sublime.

The whole course of nature, this immense universe of things, offers itself to human contemplation, and affords an infinite variety, a confused assemblage, a wilderness as it were of images, which, being collected as the materials of poetry, are selected and produced as occasion dictates. The mind of man is that mirror of Plato,* which, as he turns about at pleasure, and directs to a different point of view, he creates another sun, other stars, planets, animals, and even another self. In this shadow or image of himself, which man beholds when the mirror is turned inward towards himself, he is enabled in some degree to contemplate the souls of other men; for, from what he feels and perceives in himself, he forms conjectures concerning others; and apprehends and describes the manners, affections, conceptions of others from his own. Of this assemblage of images, which the human mind collects from all nature, and even from itself, that is, from its own emotions and operations, the least clear and evident are those which are explored by reason and argument; the more evident and distinct are those which are

De Rep. lib. x. sub init.

formed from the impressions made by external objects on the senses; and of these, the clearest and most vivid are those which are perceived by the eye. Hence poetry abounds most in those images which are furnished by the senses, and chiefly those of the sight, in order to depict the obscure by the more manifest, the subtile by the more substantial; and, as far as simplicity is its object, it pursues those ideas which are most familiar and most evident; of which there is such an abundance, that they serve as well the purpose of ornament and variety, as that of illustration.

- Those images or pictures of external objects which like lights adorn and distinguish the poetic diction, are indeed infinite in number. In an immensity of matter, however, that we may be enabled to pursue some kind of order, and not wander in uncertainty and doubt, we may venture to fix upon four sources of these ideas, whither all that occur may be commodiously referred. Thus, poetical imagery may be derived, first, from natural objects; secondly, from the manners, arts, and circumstances of common life; thirdly, from things sacred; and, lastly, from the more remarkable facts recorded in sacred history. From each of these topics a few cases will be selected, and illustrated by examples, which, though chiefly of the metaphorical kind, will yet be in a great measure applicable to the other figures which have been specified. These we shall afterwards take an opportunity to explain, when not only the figures themselves will be noticed, but also the different forms and rules for their introduction and embellishment.

LECTURE VI.

OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM THE OBJECTS OF NATURE.

The frequent use of the Metaphor renders a style magnificent, but often obscure: the Hebrew poets have accomplished the sublime without losing perspicuity-Three causes assigned for this singular fact: first, the imagery which they introduce is in general derived from familiar objects: again, in the use and accommodation of it they pursue a certain custom and analogy: lastly, they make the most free use that which is most familiar, and the nature and extent of which is most generally known. These observations confirmed by examples (1.) from natural objects: such as are common to mankind in general; such as are more familiar to the Hebrews than to others; and such as are peculiar to them.

of

"THE great excellence of the poetic dialect," as Aristotle most judiciously remarks, "consists in perspicuity without meanness. Familiar terms and words in common use form a clear and perspicuous, but frequently a low style; unusual or foreign expressions give it an air of grandeur, but frequently render it obscure."* Of those which he calls foreign, the principal force lies in the metaphor; but "as the temperate and reasonable use of this figure enlivens a composition, so the frequent introduction of metaphors obscures it, and if they very commonly occur, it will be little better than an enigma." If the Hebrew poets be examined by the rules and precepts of this great philosopher and critic, it will readily be allowed that they have assiduously attended to the sublimity of their compositions by the abundance and splendour of their figures, though it may be doubted whether they might not have been more temperate in the use of them.

Poet. c. 22. Modern writers are hardly aware of the ill consequence of what is called far-fetched imagery, or that which is taken from objects not generally known. This was the great error of Cowley, and the metaphysical poets of the last century; an error for which no beauties can compensate, which always gives a harshness, often a prosaic appearance, to poetry, and never fails to be attended with some degree of obscurity.-T.

+ Ib. and Quint. viii. 6.