Persian theology; two principles. The great and fundamental article of the system was the celebrated doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious attempt of Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral and physical evil with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and Governor of the world. The first and original Being, in whom, or by whom, the universe exists, is denominated, in the writings of Zoroaster, Time without bounds; but it must be confessed that this infinite substance seems rather a metaphysical abstraction of the mind than a real object endowed with self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From either the blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears but too near an affinity with the Chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary but active principles of the universe were from all eternity produced, Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the powers of creation, but each disposed, by his invariable nature, to exercise them with different designs. The principle of good is eternally absorbed in light the principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise benevolence of Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly provided his fair habitation with the materials of happiness. By his vigilant providence, the motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, and the temperate mixture of the elements are preserved. But the malice of Ahriman has long since pierced Ormusď's egg; or, in other words, has violated the harmony of his works. Since that fatal irruption the most minute articles of good and evil are intimately intermingled and agitated together; the rankest poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; deluges, earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature; and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and misfortune. Whilst the rest the studied obscurity of a prophet, the figurative style of the East, and the deceitful medium of a French or Latin version, may have betrayed us into error and heresy in this abridgment of Persian theology." a It is to be regretted that Gibbon followed the Sadder, which is certainly post-Mahometan. Hyde considered that it was written not more than 200 years before his time.-G. & M. b This is not correct. The doctrine of Time without bounds (a translation of Zarvana akarane), as the first and original principle from which Ormusd and Ahriman were created, is not found in the Zendavesta. It was probably first introduced into the Persian religion through the influence of the Greek philosophy. In the Zendavesta the simple representation is, that all the good spirits are subject to Ahuramasda (Ormusd), and all the evil spirits to Angramainjus (Ahri man), and there is no notice whatsoever of those questions respecting the origin of evil which were so zealously discussed in the times of the Sassanidæ. The doctrine of Time without bounds is first mentioned by Theodorus, bishop of Mopsuestia, who died A.D. 429, in a work on the Magian religion, in which he speaks of the "Zarouane" as the first principle among the Persians. (Phot. Cod. 81, p. 63, ed. Bekker.) From Oriental authorities we know that in the times of the Sassanidæ, and subsequently under the Arabs, there was a sect of the Magi which regarded the Zarvana as the original principle. See Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums, vol. ii. p. 388. — S. of human kind are led away captives in the chains of their infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone reserves his religious adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, and fights under his banner of light, in the full confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the glory of his triumph. At that decisive period the enlightened wisdom of goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious malice of his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into their native darkness; and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and harmony of the universe.11a 66 The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, and even by the far greater number of his disciples; but Religions the most careless observers were struck with the philosophic worship. simplicity of the Persian worship. "That people," says Herodotus,12 rejects the use of temples, of altars, and of statues, and smiles at "the folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are sprung "from, or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The tops of "the highest mountains are the places chosen for sacrifices. Hymns "and prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme God, who fills "the wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are addressed.” Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, he accuses them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the charge, and explained the equivocal conduct which might appear to give a colour to it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom they called Mithra, were the objects of their religious reverence, because they considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest pro 11 The modern Parsees (and in some degree the Sadder) exalt Ormusd into the first and omnipotent cause, whilst they degrade Ahriman into an inferior but rebellious spirit. Their desire of pleasing the Mahometans may have contributed to refine their theological system. 12 Herodotus, 1. i. c. 131. But Dr. Prideaux thinks, with reason, that the use of temples was afterwards permitted in the Magian religion.b The fragments of the Zendavesta contain nothing respecting the final defeat of Ahriman and the future happiness of the world. But it is evident from the Greek writers that this doctrine formed part of the Persian system of religion even at an early period (Plutarch, de Iside, c. 47); and hence we may conclude either that it was contained in the lost books of Zoroaster, or that it belonged rather to the Medo-Persian than to the Bactrian system of religion.-S. The fire temples, such as are now in use among the Parsees, are first mentioned by Strabo (xv. p. 732), and Pausanias (v. 27, §§ 5, 6). At a later period, according to Berosus (Fragm. 16, ed. Müller), the Persians began to worship statues of the gods in human form. The same writer relates that this custom was first introduced by Artaxerxes, the son of Ochus, who set up statues of Aphrodite Anaïtis in the chief cities of his dominions. Even in the existing monuments of Darius we find symbolical representations of the deity like the Assyrian. It is, however, certain that the worship of images was originally foreign to the Persian religion; but, surrounded as the western Iranians were by idolatrous nations, it is not impossible that they may to some extent have adopted this practice from their neighbours.-S. ductions, and the most powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature. 13 and moral Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on Ceremonies the human mind, must exercise our obedience by enjoining precepts. practices of devotion for which we can assign no reason; and must acquire our esteem by inculcating moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former, and possessed a sufficient portion of the latter. At the age of puberty the faithful Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the divine protection; and from that moment all the actions of his life, even the most indifferent or the most necessary, were sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or genuflexions; the omission of which, under any circumstances, was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation of the moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, liberality, &c., were, in their turn, required of the disciple of Zoroaster who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, and to live with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree of felicity will be exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue and piety.14 ment of But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays Encourage aside the prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a agriculture. liberal concern for private and public happiness, seldom to be found among the grovelling or visionary schemes of superstition. Fasting and celibacy, the common means of purchasing the divine favour, he condemns with abhorrence, as a criminal rejection of the best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian religion, is obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and to work out his salvation by pursuing all the labours of agriculture. We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and benevolent maxim, which compensates for many an absurdity. "He who sows the ground "with care and diligence acquires a greater stock of religious merit "than he could gain by the repetition of ten thousand prayers.' In the spring of every year a festival was celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, and the present connexion, of man 15 13 Hyde de Relig. Pers. c. 8. Notwithstanding all their distinctions and protestations, which seem sincere enough, their tyrants, the Mahometans, have constantly stigmatised them as idolatrous worshippers of the fire. See the Sadder, the smallest part of which consists of moral precepts. The ceremonies enjoined are infinite and trifling. Fifteen genuflexions, prayers, &c., were required whenever the devout Persian cut his nails or made water; or as often as he put on the sacred girdle. Sadder, Art. 14, 50, 60. 15 Zendavesta, tom. i. p. 224, and Précis du Système de Zoroastre, tom. iii. R See, on Zoroaster's encouragement of Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. p. 449, &c., and agriculture, the ingenious remarks of Rhode, Heilige Sage, p. 517.—M. kind. The stately kings of Persia, exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely mingled with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On that day the husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to the table of the king and his satraps. The monarch accepted their petitions, inquired into their grievances, and conversed with them on the most equal terms. "From your labours," was he accustomed to say (and to say with truth, if not with sincerity), "from your labours we receive our subsistence; you derive your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we are mutually necessary to each other, let us live together like brothers in concord "and love."16 Such a festival must indeed have degenerated, in a wealthy and despotic empire, into a theatrical representation; but it was at least a comedy well worthy of a royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint a salutary lesson on the mind of a young prince. 66 66 Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this exalted character, his name would deserve a place with Power of those of Numa and Confucius, and his system would be the Magi. 7 justly entitled to all the applause which it has pleased some of our divines, and even some of our philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that motley composition, dictated by reason and passion, by enthusiasm and by selfish motives, some useful and sublime truths were disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and dangerous superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of them were convened in a general council. Their forces were multiplied by discipline. A regular hierarchy was diffused through all the provinces of Persia ; and the Archimagus, who resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of the church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster.17 The property of the Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious possession of a large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, they levied a general tax on the fortunes and the industry of the Persians.19 "Though your good works," says the interested 18 16 Hyde de Religione Persarum, c. 19. 17 Hyde de Religione Persarum, c. 28. Both Hyde and Prideaux affect to apply to the Magian the terms consecrated to the Christian hierarchy. 18 Ammian. Marcellin. xxiii. 6. He informs us (as far as we may credit him) of two curious particulars; 1, that the Magi derived some of their most secret doctrines from the Indian Brachmans; and, 2, that they were a tribe, or family, as well as order." 19 The divine institution of tithes exhibits a singular instance of conformity between the law of Zoroaster and that of Moses. Those who cannot otherwise account for it may suppose, if they please, that the Magi of the latter times inserted so useful an interpolation into the writings of their prophet. In the Zendavesta the name of Magi does not occur, but the priests are called Athrava. Magi was the name of the VOL. I. sacerdotal order in western Iran: it exists in the Bisitun inscription of Darius in the form of Maghush.-S. Z prophet, "exceed in number the leaves of the trees, the drops of "rain, the stars in the heaven, or the sands on the sea-shore, they "will all be unprofitable to you, unless they are accepted by the "destour, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of this guide to salva"tion, you must faithfully pay him tithes of all you possess, of your "goods, of your lands, and of your money. If the destour be satis66 fied, your soul will escape hell tortures; you will secure praise in "this world and happiness in the next. For the destours are the "teachers of religion; they know all things and they deliver all "men."20 These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit faith were doubtless imprinted with care on the tender minds of youth; since the Magi were the masters of education in Persia, and to their hands the children even of the royal family were intrusted. The Persian priests, who were of a speculative genius, preserved and investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and acquired, either by superior knowledge or superior art, the reputation of being well versed in some occult sciences, which have derived their appellation from the Magi.22 Those of more active dispositions mixed with the world in courts and cities; and it is observed that the administration of Artaxerxes was, in a great measure, directed by the counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose dignity, either from policy or devotion, that prince restored to its ancient splendour.2 The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable genius of their faith, to the practice of ancient kings, persecution. and even to the example of their legislator, who had fallen a victim to a religious war excited by his own intolerant zeal.26 By an edict of Artaxerxes the exercise of every worship, except that of Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the Parthians, and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown down with ignominy.27 The sword of Aristotle (such was the name 21 Plato in Alcibiad. [p. 122, § 37.] Spirit of 20 Sadder, Art. viii. 24 23 25 22 Pliny (Hist. Natur. 1. xxx. c. 1) observes, that magic held mankind by the triple chain of religion, of physic, and of astronomy. 23 Agathias, 1. iv. [c. 24] p. 134. [ed. Paris; p. 258, ed. Bonn.]" 24 Mr. Hume, in the Natural History of Religion, sagaciously remarks that the most refined and philosophic sects are constantly the most intolerant. 25 Cicero de Legibus, ii. 10. Xerxes, by the advice of the Magi, destroyed the temples of Greece. 26 Hyde de Relig. Persar. c. 23, 24. D'Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale, Zurdusht. Life of Zoroaster in tom. ii. of the Zendavesta. Compare Moses of Chorene, 1. ii. c. 74, with Ammian. Marcellin. xxiii. 6. Hereafter I shall make use of these passages. Agathias mentions the reign of Artaxerxes in this place, but says nothing about the Magi: the passage alluded to seems to be l. ii. c. 26, p. 122, ed. Bonn.-S. b Hume's comparison is rather between theism and polytheism. In India, in Greece, and in modern Europe, philosophic religion has looked down with contemptuous toleration on the superstitions of the vulgar.-M. |