In answer to the common objection, that science was a fit subject of study for mature minds only, he admitted that "the full and scientific study of Natural History in the common schools would be absurd." He insisted, though, that parts of mineralogy and geology, chemistry, botany, and zoology were most appropriate.25

His insistence upon the importance of chemistry is significant. He considered it a subordinate but necessary part of natural history; for, he said,

no description will approximate completeness, which does not include the knowledge of the elementary substances and their properties, of their combinations and actions, and of the qualities of the compounds."

Concerning instruction in chemistry Mr. Dewey asserted that

a large number of experiments of the simpler kind might be performed by means of simple and common articles.

With a little expense, he said, the teacher would be enabled to exhibit some of the gases, and some of the more striking experiments.27

Apparently it was insisted during Mr. Dewey's time, as it has been ever since, when a new study applied for admission into the schools, that the curriculum was already full.d His answer to this objection has a familiar sound also for he did not urge that any of the subjects then included be displaced, but maintained that it was necessary only to provide better methods of instruction, better books, and better apparatus in order to secure from the daily program enough time for instruction in the sciences.28 Mr. Dewey's paper was constructive and conservative. He urged instruction in natural history in the common schools because this study was unmistakably practicable, because it was easy to understand, and because the method of study supposedly provided valuable mental discipline. Because of these values he urged that, as better methods of instruction made possible exten sion of the curricula, the subjects of natural history were well 26 Natural Science in the Common Schools. American Annals of Education

5:251.

26 Ibid. p. 248.

27 Ibid. p. 253.

2 Ibid. pp. 306-8.

In 1836 it was "resolved" before the Vermont Literary Society, "that in the judgment of this convention, opinions favoring the introduction of a more popular course of study as a substitute for the ancient classics, have a tendency injurious to the cause of sound education." American Annals of Education 6:424.

worth a place of greater prominence than that which they, up to that time, had occupied.

The wide publicity given to this paper by the American Lyceum and The American Annals of Education gave to Mr. Dewey's efforts in behalf of secondary education an importance which must be recognized.

The influence of Stephen Van Rensselaer (1764-1839) and Amos Eaton (1777-1842) were synthesized in their efforts in behalf of the Rensselaer School at Troy, New York, which was established and endowed by Mr. Van Rensselaer in 1824, and of which Mr. Eaton was made senior professor. The work of these men and the institution of which they were in charge is deserving of somewhat extended consideration. The chief aim at the Rensselaer School was to furnish training in the application of science, and more especially to train youths for the service of science-teaching. In order to extend the influence of his school outside the bounds of its immediate vicinity, Mr. Van Rensselaer planned to train teachers who were to serve as itinerant lecturers for school communities, to lecture on the applications of the sciences to agriculture and manufacturing.

A written statement of the purpose of the school appears first in a letter from Mr. Van Rensselaer, dated November 5, 1824, and addressed to the Reverend Samuel Blatchford, in which Mr. Blatchford was asked to serve as president of the Board of Trustees. He wrote:

I have established a school at the north end of Troy in Rensselaer County (New York) for the purpose of instructing persons, who may choose to apply themselves, in the application of science to the common purposes of life. My principal object is to qualify teachers for instructing the sons and daughters of farmers and mechanics, by lectures or otherwise, in the application of experimental chemistry, philosophy and natural history, to agriculture, domestic economy, the arts and manufactures."

On December 29, 1824, after the receipt of Mr. Van Rensselaer's letter, the Reverend Dr. Blatchford called together the Board of Trustees of the Rensselaer School for their first meeting. The organization of the course of study and the methods of instruction may be learned from the minutes of the first meeting 30 at which it was

20 History of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1914 p. 9.
30 Ibid. pp. 31-32.

Resolved, That persons attending the course of instruction at the Rensselaer School be distributed into three classes, viz.: a Day Class, an Afterncon Class, and an Evening Class. .... The exercises of the Day Class, for six hours in each day, except Sunday, shall consist of experiments in chemistry performed by the students themselves, and in giving explanations, or the rationale of the experiments; . . . . The Afternoon Class shall consist of those who may have previously attended one or more courses of lectures on chemistry at some public institution. They will hear no afternoon lectures; but their exercises will consist of a course of experiments in chemistry performed by themselves, as above, with the rationale, conducted under the superintendence of the senior professor. . . . . The Evening Class will attend lectures, on three evenings of each week, for ten weeks. This course of lectures will embrace chemistry, experimental philosophy, and the outlines of mineralogy, botany, and zoology. . . . .

The founder had stated in his first letter concerning the Rensselaer School that the purpose was to give instruction in the application of science to the common purposes of life. The curriculum agreed upon by the trustees in 1825 made provision for carrying out this original aim. It was ruled that

the course of exercises for the Spring Term shall be, as nearly as circumstances will admit as follows: Each student shall, during the first six weeks, give ten lectures on experimental philosophy; ten lectures on chemical powers and on substances not metallic; and ten lectures on metalloids, metals, soils, and mineral waters. For the remainder of the term each student shall be exercised in the application of the sciences before enumerated to the analysis of particular selected specimens of soils, manures, animal and vegetable substances, ores, and mineral waters; and shall devote four hours each day unless excused by one of the faculty, to the examination of operations of the agriculturists on the school farm, together with the progress of cultivated grains, grasses, fruit trees, and other plants, to practical land surveying and general mensuration, to calculations upon the application of water power and steam which is made to the various machines in the vicinity of the school and to an examination of the laws of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics which are exemplified by the locks, canals, aqueducts, and natural waterfalls surrounding the institution."1

The essential point of view in the method of communicating instruction was, "to instruct by putting the pupil in the place of teachers." It was argued that teachers improve themselves more by teaching than they do their students, and that advantage should be taken of this fact in imparting instruction. Each student was compelled to rely upon his own resources and prepare lectures

1 Ibid. p. 41.

for delivery before his classmates and instructor. This method of instruction seemed especially useful for preparing itinerating teachers for the work they were to do.32

An interesting and natural inquiry in connection with the establishment of the Rensselaer School is to what extent its curriculum and methods were affected by European influence. The trustees of Rensselaer School were unwilling to admit that foreign influence affected the method of instruction or the general plan of the school. They insisted that it was neither Fellenbergiane nor Lancasterian but purely Rensselaerian.33

The high standard of scholarship maintained kept the numbers small for many years and prevented the school from being self-supporting. Up to 1832 the enrollment never exceeded 25. and at one time 12 of the 25 enrolled were college graduates.~* In the notices for the ninth annual course, 1832-33, it was announced that the patron had advanced over twenty-two thousand dollars in support of the school for the first eight years.35

In 1826 a "preparation branch" was provided to accomodate those who were unqualified for entrance to the school proper." In 1828 “at the urgent solicitation of several judicious friends, a lady, well qualified for the duty, took charge of two experimentai courses in chemistry and natural philosophy for ladies."

The patron was persistent in his desire to extend the influence of his plan of instruction. He clung with great tenacity to his original object, to prepare teachers for instructing the sons and daughters of farmers and mechanics in the applications of science to "the common purposes of life." In order to extend the usefulness of the institution the faculty was authorized May 24, 1827, to establish district branches in any part of the state when application was made and assurance given by responsible persons that 32 Extract from a pamphlet containing the constitution and laws of Rensselaer School, American Journal of Education 2:421-22.

33 Ibid.

34 History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute p. 69.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid. p. 54.

87 Ibid. p. 63.

After Philipp Emmanuel von Fellenberg, whose school was established at Howffyl, Switzerland, 1808.

After Joseph Lancaster. It is evident that the Rensselaerean method was greatly opposed to the Lancasterian for since each pupil was required to lecture before his instructor, the number of pupils which one instructor would be able to care for was necessarily small.

suitable rooms and sufficient apparatus would be supplied. Arrangements were made whereby students educated in these district branches might receive the same credit for their work as those who were educated at Troy.38

During the same year (1827) the school issued a pamphlet containing directions for introducing experimental science into academies and common schools.39

In the following year (1828) the patron issued an invitation to each county to furnish one student, selected by the "first judge” of the county, for gratuitous instruction. This student, in return. for his instruction, was expected to return to the county from which he had been sent and engage in the work of giving instruction in the sciences in the common schools. This invitation was announced in the Zion's Herald of June 11, 1828 in the following words:

The Rensselaer School. The founder of this school, Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, has given notice that any gentleman, of good moral character above the age of eighteen, who shall obtain a certificate from the first judge of any county, (who is to issue one only) in that county, that his education is sufficient to teach any incorporated academy in the county, and give assurance that if he is admitted to a course of experimental instruction at the expense of Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, he will return to that county and exert himself to the best of his abilities to introduce and extend the experimental plan of education, with its application to agriculture, and the arts, for the benefit of the farmers and mechanics of that county, provided he can receive a reasonable compensation for his servicesshall be furnished with instruction at the Rensselaer School in Troy, during the ensuing fall term of fifteen weeks, to commence on the third Wednesday in July. He shall also be furnished with the Chymical tests, reagents, and other substances necessary to be consumed by him in his experiments, with fuel, lights, use of chymical and philosophical apparatus, library, reading rooms, cabinet, the services of the school waiter, and other advantages usually furnished to the students of said school, free of all charge." This invitation is said to have been accepted by nearly all the counties of New York state.

The extent of the influence exerted by the Rensselaer School may be inferred from a letter to the editor of the American Annals of Education signed by "One of the Teachers of Rensselaer School." The letter was written in reply to an article by

38 History of Rensselaer. Polytechnic Institute, p. 60-61.

39 Ibid. p. 61.

This pamphlet was not available to the writer.

40 Diffusion of Practical Education. American Journal of Education 3:573.