pour into, and that it should be placed on the highest part of the keg, both when on the beast's back and also when it stands on the ground, lest water should leak and be lost. According to the above plan, when water is ladled into it, the rim keeps it from spilling; and in pouring out water, the rim acts as a spout.

In making the bung-hole itself, a metal plate, with a screwhole in it, is firmly fixed in the face of the cask; into this a wooden stopper, bound with iron, is made to screw (natives would probably steal a metal one). The stopper has a small head and a deeply-cut neck, by which it is tied to the cask, and its body has a large hole bored in it, which admits of a stick being put through, to prize it round, if ever it becomes jammed. A spigot, to screw into the bung-hole on arriving at camp, might be really useful; but if used, a gimblet-hole must be bored in the cask to act as an airvent. A large tundish is very convenient, and a spare plug might be taken, but a traveller, with a little painstaking, could always cut one with his own knife sufficient to screw in firmly and to retain the water, if it had a bit of rag wrapped round A roll of rag alone will suffice.

it.

§ 8. To carry a supply of water in waggons. The most efficient way of carrying a large supply of water upon wheels has yet to be determined. The jolting and straining of a waggon is, at times, terrible, and it stands to reason, that a large solid tank must require to be made of excessive substance and weight to resist it. I am, therefore, inclined to recommend square mackintosh bags, fitting into square compartments, in large panniers, arranged just like those in a bottle basket. The basket-work would give protection against blows and the jolting together of packages, and it would yield without harm to a strain, and the bags

would yield also. Moreover, water churns about less in half-empty bags than in half-empty barrels. No particular strength of materials would be required in making these bags; their mouths should be funnel-shaped, wide open above, for the convenience of pouring in water, and also because a string, tied round the neck to secure it, would never slip off. The bags should have loops along their sides, through which a strap passing underneath might be run, to give a good hold for lifting them up.

The question remains, of what size would it be the most convenient to make them? They could easily be filled as they lay in their compartments, and would only require to be lifted out in order to empty them; there would, therefore, be no objection to their holding a considerable weight of

water.

All things considered, I should recommend their being fitted to compartments measuring 18 inches deep, and 10 inches square; they would then each hold about 60 lbs. of water. A pannier not much exceeding 30 inches long, by 20 broad, and 18 deep, would hold six of these bags, or 360 lbs. weight of water in all; and two such panniers would be ample for exploring purposes; the weight of the panniers and bags themselves could hardly exceed 100 lbs. It might be very proper to vary the contents of some few of the compartments, by way of experiment, putting, for instance, two or even three small bags into one, and tin cases into a few others, instead of the large bags. These panniers, with the bags inflated and connected together by a stage, would form an excellent and powerful raft. If secured within a waggon about to cross a deep river, they would be amply enough, in all ordinary cases, to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom.

Captain Sturt, when he explored in Australia, took a tank in his cart, which burst, and, besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he was enabled to face a desert country with a success which no traveller before had ever attained to. For instance, when returning homewards, the water was found to be drying up from the country on all sides of him. He was at a pool, and the next stage was 118 miles, at the end of which it was doubtful if there remained any water. It was necessary to send to reconnoitre, and to furnish the messenger with means of returning should the pool be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), sent it by an oxdray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he despatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the horse and man were to drink at the hide, and go on. Thus they had 36 gallons to supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or 6 days, at 30 miles a day, at the close of which they would return to the ox-hide-sleeping, in fact, 5 nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, welldriven horse could do, even in the hottest climate.

§ 9. Small water-vessels.—No expedition should start without being very adequately supplied with these, for no ingenuity in the bush can make anything so efficient as casks, tin vessels or mackintosh bags. People drink excessively in hot, dry climates, as the evaporation from the skin is enormous, and must be counterbalanced; the daily ration of a European in these is at least two quarts a day. To make an exploring expedition efficient, there should be means of carrying at least half a gallon of water for each white man, and in unknown countries this quantity should invariably be carried on from every watering place, so long as means can possibly be obtained of carrying it; and should be served out thus:—two

quarts the first day, in addition to whatever private store the men may choose to carry for themselves; a quart and a half during the second day; and half a quart on the morning of the third, which will carry them through that day without distress. Besides water-vessels sufficient for carrying all this, there ought to be means of leaving water buried in the ground as a store for the return of a reconnoitring expedition; and each man should be furnished with a tin canteen holding a quart, of this shape, which, whether empty or full, he should have the

liciously cool.

charge of. The Arabs use a porous leather flask called a Zemsemmere, which is hung on the shady side of the camel, and by evaporation keeps the water it contains deIt is rather wasteful.

Native vessels.-Vessels for carrying water are made as follows:

From the raw or dry skins of animals, which should be greased down the back.

The paunch, the heart-bag (pericardium), the intestines, and the bladder. When used they should have a wooden skewer run in and out along one side of their open mouths, by which they can be carried, and a lashing passed round under the skewer to make all tight. The Bushmen do this. The water oozes a little through the sides, and by its evaporation the contents are kept very cool. The only fault of these bags, besides their frailty, is, that they become putrid after a little

use.

The bark of a tree, either taken off in an entire cylinder, and having a bottom fitted on, or else a knot or excrescence being cut off the outside of a tree and its woody interior scooped out.

Soft wood hollowed out into buckets.

Calabashes and other large fruits, cocoa-nuts, &c.

Ostrich eggs.

Canvass bags, well greased, hold water for a long time. (Sir Thos. Mitchell.)

§ 10. Additional remarks.-When carrying water in buckets, put a wreath of grass, or something floating on the top of the water, to prevent it splashing; and also make a hoop, inside which the porter walks, while his laden hands rest on its rim, whose office it is to keep them wide from his body, and prevent the buckets from knocking against his legs.

If a water-vessel becomes leaky, it should be caulked up by stuffing a rag, a wedge of wood, a tuft of grass, or anything into it, and then greasing or waxing it over. A larger rent must be seized upon, the lips of the wound pinched up, a thorn or other spike run through the lips, and lastly a piece of twine lashed firmly round, underneath the thorn, whose office it is to keep the string from slipping off.

The Bushmen of South Africa make great use of ostrich shells as water-vessels. They have stations at many places in the desert, where they bury these shells filled with water, corked with grass, and occasionally waxed over. They thus go without hesitation over wide tracts, for their instinct of locality is so strong that they never fear to forget the spot in which they have dug their hiding-place.

It is a good rule for an explorer, that, when in an arid. country he happens to come to water after not less than three hours' travelling, to stop and encamp by it; it is far better for him to avail himself of his good fortune and be content with his day's work, than to risk the uncertainty of another supply.