4. The root often changes its vowel.

Thus the radical vowel a, when preceded by a prefix, is changed into i in an open, and into in a close syllable; as, Agent, exigent,

from

ag; facile, deficient, defect, from √ fac.

The radical vowel a, when preceded by a prefix, is sometimes changed into u; as, Capable, occupant, from √ cap.

The radical vowel e, when preceded by a prefix, is changed into i in an open syllable; as, Legible, intelligible, from

leg.

The radical diphthong au, when preceded by a prefix, is changed into e or u; as, Claudent, include, from √ claud.

This change of vowel, which modern philologists have investigated with great care, is to be regarded as an attenuation or lightening of the vowel sound, as an offset to the weight of the preceding prefix.

5. The root often undergoes mutilation; as, Frail for fragile, from ✓ frag.

§ 399. 1. √ ac, "to be sharp," as in acid; 2. Vag, "to drive," as in agile; 3. √ bat, "to strike," as in combat; 4. bib, “to drink," as in imbibe; 5. √ cap," to take," as in capable; 6. √ clam, "to cry out," as in clamor; 7. √ dic, "to say," as in diction; 8. ✓ duc," to lead," as in induce; 9. √ em," to buy," as in redeem; 10. √ed, "to eat," as in edible; 11. fend, "to strike," as in defend; 12. √ fid, "to trust," as in confide; 13. √ flu, " to flow," as in fluent; 14. frag," to break," as in fragile; 15. √ jac, "to cast," as in jaculate; 16. √ger, "to bear," as in vicegerent; 17. √ lab, "to lick," as in labial; 18. lav, "to wash," as in laver; 19. √ man, "to stay," as in permanent; 20. √ mand, "to eat," as in mandible; 21. √ nec, "to join," as in connect; 22. V niv, "to wink," as in connive; 23. √ od, "to hate," as in odium; 24. √ pand, "to open," as in expand; 25. √ pel, "to drive," as in compel; 26. √ reg, “to rule," as in regal; 27. √ rod," to gnaw," as in corrode; 28. √sal, "to leap," as in salient; 29. √ sec, “to cut," as in secant. 30. √ tang, "to touch," as in tangent; 31. √ tol, "to raise," as in extol; 32. √ung, "to anoint," as in unguent; 33. √ur, “to burn," as in adure; 34. √val, "to be strong," as in valid; 35. √ vad, "to go," as in evade.

II. LATIN STEM-ADJECTIVES.

§400. Stem-adjectives, whether actually found in English; as, Bland, brute, crisp, crude, dense, dire, firm, grand, grave, just, large,

lax, mere, mute, prone, pure, rare, rude, sage, sane, sole, surd, vast, vile; or merely implied in the derivatives; as, Brev, "short;" cec, "blind;" dign, "worthy;" fort, "strong;" grat, "grateful;" lat, "broad;" len, "mild;" lent," slow ;" lev, " light;" magn," great ;" mal, " wicked;" mir, "wonderful;" mit, "mild;" moll, "soft;" mund, "pure;" nov, new;" parv, "small;" prav, "wicked;" prob, “good;" ranc, "hoarse;" ser, "late;” truc, "cruel;" turp, "base;" ver, “true."

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III. LATIN STEM-SUBSTANTIVES.

401. Stem-substantives, whether actually found in English; as, Arc, art, barb, cause, class, face, fane, fraud, globe, joke, mode, orb, pest, rite, sine, vase, verb; or merely implied in the derivatives; as, Can, "dog;" cib, "food;" civ, "citizen;" crin, "hair;" crur, "thigh ;" flor, "flower;" hum," ground;" loc," place;" mor, “ manner;” morb, "disease;" nav, "ship ;" ov, egg;" pil, "hair;" plum, "feather;" plumb, "lead;" rug, “wrinkle.”

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IV. LATIN PRIMARY DERIVATIVE WORDS.

§ 402. Primary derivatives, or derivatives formed from the root or stem by means of a single suffix, include,

1. Derivative verbs with the form of the Latin supine, or, rather, of the Latin passive participle:

(1.) From roots ending in a labial mute; as, Adapt, from √ ap; accept, from cap; lapse, from lab; corrupt, from √rup.

(2.) From roots ending in a palatal mute; as, Act, from vag; predict, from dic; direct, from Vreg; refract, from √frag. (3.) From roots ending in a lingual mute; as, Erase, from √ rad; cense, from cend; revise, from vid; confess, from fat; transgrad.

gress, from

(4.) From roots ending in a liquid l, m, n, or r; as, Invent, from √ven; insult, from √ sal; discourse, from √ cur; expose, from √ pon; press, from √ prem.

(5.) From Latin verbs of first conjugation; as, Inflate, from fla; vacate, from vac; create, from √ cre.

(6.) From Latin verbs of second conjugation; as, Complete, from √ple.

(7.) From Latin verbs of fourth conjugation; as, Audit, from √ aud.

2. Derivative verbs with other suffixes:

(1.) With the formative syllable er; as, Ponder, from

pend.

(2.) With diminutive suffix il; as, Cavil; also, cantillate, oscillate, scintillate, vacillate.

(3.) With inchoative suffix esce; as, Frondesce.

3. Derivative adjectives:

(1.) In aceous, from nouns; as, Bulbaceous, from bulb; crustaceous, from crust; herbaceous, from herb.

(2.) In acious, from verbs; as, Bibacious, from bib; capacious, from cap; edacious, fallacious, rapacious, tenacious, vivacious, vo

racious.

(3.) In al, from nouns; as, Final, from fine; verbal, from verb; costal, crural, dental, dotal, legal, local; or in ial; as, Cordial, labial, martial, pluvial.

(4.) In an, from nouns; as, Human, pagan, sylvan.

(5.) In aneous, from nouns; as, Cutaneous, pedaneous.

(6.) In ar, the same as al, from nouns; as, Lunar, solar, stellar, vulgar.

(7.) In ent, from verbs; as, Cadent, candent, claudent; or in ant; as, Errant, secant, vacant; or in ient; as, Lenient.

(8.) In eous, from nouns; as, Aqueous, igneous, niveous, vitreous. (9.) In ible, from verbs; as, Legible, edible; or in able; as, Arable, curable.

(10.) In id, from verbs; as, Acid, arid, algid; or from nouns; as, Florid, gelid, morbid, rorid.

(11) In ile, from verbs; as, Agile, fragile, utile; or from nouns ; as, Febrile, gentile, hostile, senile, servile.

(12.) In ine; as, Fagine, canine, ferine, saline.

(13.) In ose; as, Crinose, globose, verbose.

(14.) In ous; as, Porous, vinous, mucous.

(15.) In t; as, Relict; or ate; as, Private; or ete; as, Complete; or ite; as, Finite.

(16.) In tive or sive, from verbs; as, Active, captive, ortive, missive. 4. Derivative concrete substances:

(1.) In acle; as, Miracle, spiracle; or icle; as, Vehicle, pellicle.

(2.) In aster; as, Poetaster, pilaster.

(3.) In ary; as, Library, granary.

(4.) In ule; as, Granule, spherule.

(5.) In ory; as, Armory, pillory.

(6.) In tor or sor; as, Factor, from fac; scissor, from √scind;

actor, from

ag; cessor, from cede.

(7.) In trix; as, Rectrix.

5. Derivative abstract substantives:

(1.) In acy; as, Curacy, lunacy, legacy, fallacy.

(2.) In ance; as, Chance, from

cad.

(3.) In ancy; as, Vacancy, peccancy, pliancy, tenancy.

(4.) In ence; as, Cadence, from √ cad.

(5.) In ency; as, Cadency, pendency; agency, from ag. (6.) In ice; as, Justice, from just; malice, notice.

(7.) In ity; as, Brevity; crudity, from crude.

(8.) In mony; as, Alimony, testimony.

(9.) In itude; as, Altitude; solitude from sole.

(10.) In tion and sion; as, Action, from √ ag; vision, from √ vid. (11.) In ture and sure; as, Culture, scripture; fracture, from √ frag; rasure, from rad.

V. LATIN SECONDARY DERIVATIVES.

403. Secondary derivatives; as, Courageous, tolerable, moderate, documentary, querimonious, plenteous, nationality.

VI. LATIN DERIVATIVE WORDS WITH PREFIXES.

§ 404. 1. Ab, from, in the different forms a, ab, abs; as, Avert, absolve, abstain.

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Absolve, to free from; abrade, to scrape off; avert, to turn away; abuse, to use ill. (2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Aborigines, the first inhabitants of a country; abstemious, abstaining from wine.

2. Ad, to, in the different forms a, ac, ad, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at; as, Ascribe, accede, adduce, affix, aggress, allege, annex, append, arrogate, assume, attain.

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Adhere, to stick to; aggress, to go against.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Adjust, to make

exact.

3. Amb, about, having its original force of an adverb; as, Ambition, literally a going about; ambiguous, of uncertain meaning. 4. Ante or anti, before:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Antecedent, going before; anticipate, to act before another.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Antelucan, being before light.

5. Circum, around:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Circumspect, to look round.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Circumforaneous, going about from door to door.

6. Cis, on this side, as a preposition, with its complement; as, Cisalpine, on this side of the Alps.

7. Contra, against, having its original force of an adverb; as, Contradict, to speak against.

8. Cum, with, in its different forms co, col, com, con, cor; as, Cohere, collude, commit, contend, corrode; and having its original force of an adverb; as, Convoke, to call together; contend, to strive against.

9. De, from:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Deduce, to bring from; deject, to cast down; detect, to uncover.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Dethrone, to remove from a throne; deprave, to make wicked.

10. Di or dis, apart, used as an adverb; as, Distract, to draw apart; disobey, to refuse to obey.

11. E or ex, out of:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Eject, to cast out; exscind, to cut off; exceed, to go beyond; exclaim, to cry aloud.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Enucleate, to free from the kernel.

12. Extra, beyond:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Extravagant, literally wandering beyond limits.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Extraordinary, out of the common order.

13. In, in, in its different forms il, im, in, ir; as, Illumine, impose, incur, irrigate.

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Inject, to cast in; impose, to place upon; impend, to hang over: denoting intensity; as, Incite, to stir up: denoting negation; as, Inactive.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Illumine, to set in light; incarcerate, to put into prison; irradiate, to affect with rays. 14. Intro, within, having its original force of an adverb; as, Introduce, to bring in.

15. Inter, between:

(1.) Having its original force of an adverb; as, Intervene, to come between; interdict, to forbid.

(2.) As a preposition, with its complement; as, Internode, the space between two joints of a plant.

16. Ob, against, in its different forms ob, oc, of, op; as, Obtain, occur, offer, oppose; and having its original force of an adverb; as, Oppose, to place against.

17. Per, through, as an adverb; as, Perforate, to bore through: denoting negation; as, Perfidious, faithless.