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ART. VI.-History of Civilization. By WILLIAM ALEXANDER MACKINNON, F.R.S., M.P. Two vols. London: Longman.

1846.

CIVILIZATION, simple word as it seems, is variously interpreted, and almost every class or creed of men attaches its own meaning to the term. With a certain class, including not a few, civilization and refinement are convertible terms: with others advancement in science, art, or manufactures, is the criterion of civilization. Now, to our thinking, these, which are held to be synonymous with civilization, though they may be its concomitants, are not the tests of it. There can be little doubt that the Egyptians had, at one time, attained to a very high pitch in many branches of science. Take, for instance, the pyramids, which, apart even from the purposes for which they were erected, are a puzzle and a problem to this day. By what known or conceivable power of mechanics could the immense blocks of stone of which they are composed have been elevated to their present position?-and the pyramids form but one of the marvels which baffle modern conjecture. And yet we find the Egyptians, who had witnessed so many and such awful manifestations of the power of the one true God, given over to the grossest idolatry. Look again to Pompeii: there can be as little doubt, judging from the fragments which modern research has rescued from oblivion, that in some of the arts a marvellous proficiency had been attained; and it is equally evident that the Pompeians carried luxury to a point of refinement rarely reached by any nation, ancient or modern; and yet they were sunk in the lowest depths of sensuality and vice.

So various, therefore, and we may add, so questionable and dangerous, are modern notions of civilization, that it is with something like suspicion we take up a volume professing to treat on the subject. Happily, Happily, as respects the work before us, this feeling is very soon relieved. An Introduction" to a book, like an introduction to a stranger, is sometimes sufficient to decide us as to the propriety of cultivating a farther acquaintance. In the second page of Mr. Mackinnon's "Introduction," it is put forth as a fundamental principle that civilization is "formed and gains strength according to the information, moral principle (based on religious faith), facility of communication, and amount of wealth possessed by individuals composing a community. These elements (the author adds) we shall style the requisites for civilization." Now, however much we might on other and minor points differ from him, the writer who starts by asserting

that religious faith is essential to civilization at once establishes his claim to our attention to the end of his essay.

Mr. Mackinnon commences by stating that civilization and public opinion depend on each other, though they do not coexist exactly in an equal proportion; "the latter, however (he adds), depends so much on the former, that the history of one includes, in some degree, the history of the other."

"Civilization (he continues), uninfluenced by public opinion, has been recognized, to a certain extent, at various cras in different parts of the world. It is said to have been found in the Grecian republies, in the Augustan age of Rome, and during the reign of Louis XIV., in France; but at neither of these periods do we discover that diffused and all-reaching civilization which can alone exalt the destiny of nations, give comfort to nearly every class, and make each man feel that, in his degree, he has a stake in the country to which he belongs."

It is quite clear that the point of civilization, indicated in the last clause of the paragraph we have quoted, has not yet been attained in any nation or under any form of government with which we are acquainted. With regard to public opinion, which the author designates as a sort of trust held by the middle class of society, and usually exercised for the benefit of all, he declares himself in a passage so full of sound sense and discrimination that we will quote it entire :

"Before we proceed, it will be necessary to distinguish between popular clamour and public opinion, words often confounded with, and mistaken for, each other, yet essentially different, and emanating from totally opposite causes. Public opinion is powerful in a community where the requisites for its formation are spread among the people; that is, where moral principle, information, wealth, and facility of communication exist, and where the middle class is extensive. On the contrary, popular clamour is influential in proportion as the lower class is numerous, ignorant, poor, and fanatical. Popular clamour is an excitement created by, and exercising influence on, the passions of the multitude, who usually form rash resolves, and act without reflection, judgment, or regard for consequences. In proportion as reason exercises its influence on the people, sudden bursts of feeling will be less common, but public opinion will be more powerful. Popular clamour has probably less influence in this country than any other, owing to the strength of public opinion. If the former occasionally appears, it arises from freedom of speech and action possessed by the people, and the mildness of our authorities; not from any strength in itself. In some nations of the continent popular clamour may be held under restraint; but should the pressure be taken off its effect would be more influential than in this island, because here it is thoroughly subdued by public opinion. Wherever civilization and a middle class are spread over a community, public opinion will be all-powerful, and

popular clamour impotent. It may happen that on some particular question these may be united; but generally the influence of the one is in an inverse ratio to that of the other."

One of the great recommendations of Mr. Mackinnon's book is the lucid simplicity of its style, the absence of all technical and abstruse terms, and a felicity of illustration which we have rarely met with in a work of the character of that before us. This last quality is peculiarly exemplified in the concluding paragraph of the three which we are about to quote:

"Whatever tends to alter the proportion of the several classes, in reference to each other, is of moment to the civilization of the entire community. The power and general use of machinery adds to the middle class, by augmenting the wealth of the people in a much greater ratio than was formerly thought possible; and considering that this power may, by its capability of expansion, be greatly increased, its effect on commerce, manufactures, and trade, sets all reasoning by analogy completely at defiance. Machinery supplies the use of labour without the expense of clothes and food. Accordingly, in whatever country this artificial and wonderful agent prevails a proportionate amount of capital will be created; and as disposable capital, by its fructifying quality, multiplies itself, it is impossible to assign any limits to the wealth which steam power may produce, or its effect in increasing the middle class.

"In saying that by manufactures and commerce, and especially by the use of recently-invented machinery, the middle class is more augmented than either of the others, we do not intend to assert that the upper may not, by the same means, receive some addition to its numbers; but such increase is trifling when compared with that of the middle. Persons well acquainted with the manufacturing world are aware that very large fortunes are seldom made by one individual. The capital, so created, generally diffuses itself through several channels. It gives comfort and competence to many; but large fortunes only to a few.

"To exemplify the almost uniform tendency towards increase in the middle class, let us, by way of simile, imagine three lakes near each other in a line, the two extremes communicating with the middle by any channel. Let these respectively represent the upper, middle, and lower classes of society. The use of machinery creates capital, which, being subdivided among the children or next of kin of the party by whom it is realized, lifts so many out of the lower rank into the middle; that is, forces so much of the water from the lower lake into the next above it. The parties by whom capital is possessed become purchasers of land, and thus encourage the tendency in the upper class, both by facility of sale, and temptation arising from increase of luxuries created by machinery, to dispose of part, if not the whole, of their landed estates. In proportion as this is effected they merge into the middle class. Accordingly, there is a constant flow from the

upper and lower lake into the middle, to the increase of the latter at the expense of the two former."

Our author then goes on to trace the various stages of civilization. The first advance he refers to the pastoral tribes, who, though possessed of flocks, had no positive ownership in the soil. The next gradation in improvement he describes as that where the earth is to a certain extent cultivated, and in which state laws must be formed, and property is gained in the soil. The foundation of the feudal system he describes as the third step towards civilization, by which the tenure of property in the soil was made more secure, and sudden inroads or permanent conquests by one people over another rendered less frequent. The next stage he refers to the establishment of absolute monarchy, by which the baronial power was to a great degree crushed and rendered subservient to one uniform code of laws, and one entire system of government. The fifth and last state of civilization is described as that in which security of person and property is established by a just and complete administration of good laws, where public opinion has the greatest influence, and where a greater amount of happiness is found in the community. And here the author recurs to the influence of the middle class on civilization, thus illustrating his views:

"We repeat, that the greater the amount of the middle class, in proportion to the other classes, the greater is the extent of a nation's happiness. It is in this class that individual exertion is chiefly found; and individual exertion adds wealth to the community. A certain portion only of human labour can be productive of subsistence; the other part is instrumental to enjoyment: both are equally necessary, the one exciting the other. Let us call the former the origin for producing food-the latter that for producing clothing or luxuries. It signifies nothing as to the main purpose of trade how superfluous the latter production may be, or whether the want of it be real or imaginary. For example, a watch may not be very necessary to a peasant; yet, if the peasant will work one hour a day additional for a year to get a watch, the true design of trade is answered; and the watchmaker, while he polishes the case, or files the wheels, is contributing to the production of corn as effectually, though not so directly, as if he was ploughing the land. Thus it follows that manufactures increase the produce of the earth; as, whatever is required of luxuries by those who produce food must be obtained by an additional amount of exertion on their part. By these means, in this last stage of civilization, that state in which Great Britain is at present, a vast amount of wealth, created as already mentioned, augments hourly the middle class, and the happiness of the community is increased, while civilization and public opinion are fostered."

We cannot dismiss the "Introduction" without quoting the

author's allusion to Bacon's observation, that philanthropy, "of all virtues and dignities of the mind, is the greatest, being the character of the Deity; and, without it, man is a busy, miscehivous, wretched thing, no better than a kind of vermin."

"In his latter position (says our author) Bacon was correct: by virtue he meant that moral principle that has already been stated as one of the most powerful elements of all civilization-a principle that cannot exist without true religious belief-the deficiency of which has checked the improvement in civilization of all the nations which history has placed on record. Without this, physical advantages, however great, are but weak auxiliaries; for, wherever moral principle is wanting, only a spurious kind of civilization is found-only that described to have existed in ancient days, as will appear in the following pages. In this spurious civilization, without moral principle or religious belief, what is public opinion? It becomes the voice of national selfishness, sanctioning, if not applauding, the perpetration of acts in violation of the duty of man to his fellow men. To this deficiency of virtue in nations may be mainly attributed the fall of mighty states, and the tardy progress of civilization throughout the world."

What our readers may think of the principles with which Mr. Mackinnon sets out we know not; but, for ourselves, we feel that, in following a man professing them, we cannot wander far from the truth, and we shall now proceed to give an idea of the nature of the work by quoting some of its most striking and original passages. Take the following from the opening chapter on the civilization of Ancient Egypt:

"We may here be permitted to hazard an observation in reference to the monuments of antiquity which are now remaining either in this country (Egypt), in Greece, Rome, or other parts of the world. On considering the magnificent cities and structures erected in former ages, either Thebes, Baalbec, Palmyra, the Pyramids, the Coliseum, &c., we are naturally struck with awe and amazement at the magnitude of the undertaking, and are inclined to imagine, that the civilization or power of a Government or people must have been considerable, to attempt and bring to maturity such gigantic and laborious works. This conclusion, however, seems not warranted. There is no doubt that, in ancient days, as well as in the present, great individual talent was, and is to be, found. Individual talent or information must not, however, be confounded with the general talent or information spread through the community. We cannot, therefore, but think that these great works originated from a despotic power exercised over an ignorant and uncivilized population, over a mass of people, either confined in slavery, or controlled under the iron grasp of despotism. Take for example the Pyramids: the labour employed, or rather wasted, on these monuments, would have provided the comfort and enjoyment of millions, if expended either on their private dwellings, or in any manner for individual shelter. A population forced to work on such use

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