224 THE CUSTOMS, MANNERS, AND MORALS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

When he left England the same year, the king sent him a massy goblet of silver, filled with one hundred nobles2.

As we are approaching to Chaucer, let us here stand still, and take a retrospect of the general manners. The tournaments and carousals of our ancient princes, by forming splendid assemblies of both sexes, while they inculcated the most liberal sentiments of honour and heroism, undoubtedly contributed to introduce ideas of courtesy, and to encourage decorum. Yet the national manners still retained a great degree of ferocity, and the ceremonies of the most refined courts in Europe had often a mixture of barbarism, which rendered them ridiculous. This absurdity will always appear at periods when men are so far civilised as to have lost their native simplicity, and yet have not attained just ideas of politeness and propriety. Their luxury was inelegant, their pleasures indelicate, their pomp cumbersome and unwieldy. In the mean time it may seem surprising, that the many schools of philosophy which flourished in the middle ages, should not have corrected and polished the times. But as their religion was corrupted by superstition, so their philosophy degenerated into sophistry. Nor is it science alone, even if founded on truth, that will polish nations. For this purpose, the powers of imagination must be awakened and exerted, to teach elegant feelings, and to heighten our natural sensibilities. It is not the head only that must be informed, but the heart must also be moved. Many classic authors were known in the thirteenth century, but the scholars of that period wanted taste to read and admire them. The pathetic or sublime strokes of Virgil would be but little relished by theologists and metaphysicians.

THE most illustrious ornament of the reign of Edward III., and of his successor Richard II., was Jeffrey Chaucer; a poet with whom the history of our poetry is by many supposed to have commenced: and who has been pronounced, by a critic of unquestionable taste and

1 Froissart says, that he accompanied the king to various palaces, 'A Elten, a Ledos, a 'Kinkestove, a Cenes, a Certesee, et a Windsor.' That is, Eltham, Leeds, Kingston, Chertsey, &c. Chron. liv. iv. c. 119, p. 348. The French are not much improved at this day spelling English places and names. Perhaps by Cenes, Froissart means SHENE, the royal palace at Richmond.'

2 Cron. f. 251, 252, 255, 319, 348. Bayle, who has an article on Froissart, had no idea of searching for anecdotes of Froissart's life in his CHRONICLE. Instead of which, he swells his notes on this article with the contradictory accounts of Moreri, Vossius, and others: whose disputes might have been all easily settled by recurring to Froissart himself, who has interspersed in his history many curious particulars relating to his own life and works.

discernment, to be the first English versifier who wrote poetically1. He was born in the year 1328, and educated at Oxford, where he made a rapid progress in the scholastic sciences as they were then taught: but the liveliness of his parts, and the native gaiety of his disposition, soon recommended him to the patronage of a magnificent monarch, and rendered him a very popular and acceptable character in the brilliant court which I have above described. In the mean time, he added to his accomplishments by frequent tours into France and Italy, which he sometimes visited under the advantages of a public character. Hitherto our poets had been persons of a private and circumscribed education, and the art of versifying, like every other kind of composition, had been confined to recluse scholars. But Chaucer was a man of the world: and from this circumstance we are to account, in great measure, for the many new embellishments which he conferred on our language and our poetry. The descriptions of splendid processions and gallant carousals, with which his works abound, are a proof that he was conversant with the practices and diversions of polite life. Familiarity with a variety of things and objects, opportunities of acquiring the fashionable and courtly modes of speech, connections with the great at home, and a personal acquaintance with the vernacular poets of foreign countries, opened his mind and furnished him with new lights. In Italy he was introduced to Petrarch, at the wedding of Violante, daughter of Galleazzo duke of Milan, with the duke of Clarence and it is not improbable that Boccacio was of the party3. Although Chaucer undoubtedly studied the works of these celebrated writers, and particularly of Dante before this fortunate interview; yet it seems likely, that these excursions gave him a new relish for their compositions, and enlarged his knowledge of the Italian fables. His travels likewise enabled him to cultivate the Italian and Provencal languages with the greatest success and induced him to polish the asperity, and enrich the sterility of his native versification, with softer cadences, and a more [copious and varigated phraseology. In this attempt, which was authorised by the recent and popular examples of Petrarch in Italy, and Alain Chartier in France1, he was countenanced and assisted by his friend John Gower, the early guide and encourager

1 Johnson's DICTIONARY, Pref. p. 1.

2 The earl of Salisbury, beheaded by Henry IV., could not but patronise Chaucer. I do not mean for political reasons. The earl was a writer of verses, and very fond of poetry. On this account, his acquaintance was much cultivated by the famous Christina of Pisa; whose works, both in prose and verse, compose so considerable a part of the old French literature. She used to call him 'Gracieux chevalier, aimant dictiez, et lui-meme gracieux dicteur.' See M. Boivin, Mem. Lit. tom. ii. p. 767, seq. 4to. I have seen none of this earl's Ditties. Otherwise he would have been here considered in form, as an English poet.

3 Froissart was also present. VIE DE PETRARQUE, iii. 772. Amst. 1766, 4to. I believe Paulus Jovius is the first who mentions this anecdote. Vit. Galeas. ii. p. 152.

4 Leland, Scrip. Brit. 421.

226 THE VALUE OF TRANSLATIONS-WICKLIFFE'S BIBLE.

of his studies1. The revival of learning in most countries appear to have first owed its rise to translation. At rude periods the modes of original thinking are unknown, and the arts of original composition have not yet been studied. The writers therefore of such periods are chiefly and very usefully employed in importing the ideas of other languages into their own. They do not venture to think for themselves, nor aim at the merit of inventors, but they are laying the foundations of literature and while they are naturalising the knowledge of more learned ages and countries by translation, they are imperceptibly improving the national language. This has been remarkably the case, not only in England, but in France and Italy. In the year 1387, John Trevisa, canon of Westbury in Wiltshire, and a great traveller, not only finished a translation of the Old and New Testaments, at the command of his munificient patron Thomas lord Berkley2, but also translated Higden's POLYCHRONICON, and other Latin pieces3. But these translations would have been alone insufficient to have produced or sustained any considerable revolution in our language: the great work was reserved for Gower and Chaucer. Wickliffe had also translated the bible: and in other respects his attempts to bring about a reformation in religion at this time proved beneficial to English literature, The orthodox divines of this period generally wrote in Latin: but Wickliffe, that his arguments might be familiarised to common readers and the bulk of the people, was obliged to compose in English his numerous theological treatises against the papal corruptions. Edward III., while he perhaps intended only to banish a badge of conquest, greatly contributed to establish the national dialect, by abolishing the use of the Norman tongue in the public acts and judicial proceedings, as we have before observed, and by substituting the national language of the country. But Chaucer manifestly first taught his countrymen to write English; and formed a style by naturalising words from the Provencal, at that time the most polished dialect of any in Europe, and the best adapted to the purposes of poetical expression.

1 Gower, Confess. Amant. 1. v. fol. 190, b. Barthel, 1554

And grete wel Chaucer, when ye mete,
For in the flowers of his youth,

Of dites and of songs glade

2 H. Wharton, Append. Cav. p. 49.

As my disciple and my poete:
In sundrie wise as he well couth,
The which he for my sake made, etc.

3 Such as Bartholomew Hantwille De Proprietatibus Rerum, lib. xix. Printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1494 fol. And Vegetius De Arte Militari, MSS. Digb. 233. Bibl. Bodl. In the same MSS. is Egidius Romanus De Regimine Principium, a translation probably by Trevisa. He also translated some pieces of Richard Fitzralph, archbishop of Armagh. See supr. p. 291. He wrote a tract, prefixed to his version of the POLYCHRONICON, on the utility of translations. De Utilitate Translationum. Dialogus inter Clericum et Patronum. See more of his translations in MSS. Harl. 1900. I do not find his ENGLISH BIBLE in any of our libraries, nor do I believe that any copy of it now remains. Caxton mentions it in the preface to his edition of the English POLYCHRONICON.

4 It is observable, that he made his translation from the vulgate Latin version of Jerom. It was finished 1383. See MSS. Cod. Pibl. Coll. Eman. Cant. 102.

It is certain that Chaucer abounds in classical allusions: but his poetry is not formed on the ancient models. He appears to have been an universal reader, and his learning is sometimes mistaken for genius but his chief sources were the French and Italian poets. From these originals two of his capital poems, the KNIGHT'S TALE1, and the ROMAUNT OF THE ROSE, are imitations or translations. The first of these is taken from Boccacio.

Boccacio was the disciple of Petrarch; and although principally known and deservedly celebrated as a writer or inventor of tales, he was by his cotemporaries usually placed in the third rank after Dante and Petrarch. But Boccacio having seen the Platonic sonnets of his master Petrarch, in a fit of despair committed all his poetry to the flames2, except a single poem, of which his own good taste had long taught him to entertain a more favourable opinion. This piece, thus happily rescued from destruction, is at present so scarce and so little known, even in Italy, as to have left its author but a slender proportion, of that eminent degree of poetical reputation, which he might have justly claimed from so extraordinary a performance. It is an heroic poem, in twelve books, entitled, LE TESEIDE, and written in the octave stanza, called by the Italians ottava rima, which Boccacio adopted from the old French chausons, and here first introduced among his countrymen3. It was printed at Ferrara, but with some deviations from the original, and even misrepresentations of the story, in the year 1475. Afterwards, I think, in 1488. And for the third and last time at Venice, in the year 15285. But the corruptions have been sufferred to remain through every edition.

Whether Boccacio was the inventor of the story of this poem is a curious enquiry. It is certain that Theseus was an early hero of romance. He was taken from that grand repository of the Grecian heroes, the History of Troye, written by Guido de Colonna". In the royal library at Paris, there is a MSS. entitled, The ROMAN DE THESEUS ET DE GADIFER2. Probably this is the printed French romance, under the title. 'Histoire du chevalier THESEUS de Cou

1 Chaucer alludes to some book from whence this tale was taken, more than once, viz. v. 1. "Whilom, as olde stories tellin us,' v. 1465. As olde books to us saine, that all this storie telleth more plain,' v. 2814. 'Of soulis fynd I nought in this registre.' That is, this history, or narrative. See also v. 2297. In the Legende of good women, where Chaucer's works are mentioned, is this passage, which I do not well understand, v. 420.

And al the love of Palamon and Arcite Of Thebis, though the storie is known lite.

Goujet, Bibl. Fr. Tom. vii. p. 328. But we must except, that besides the poem mentioned below, Boccacio's AMAZONIDA, e Forze d'ErcoLE, are both now extant: and were printed at Ferrara in, or about, the year 1475 fol.

3 Crescimben, Istor. Volgar. Poes. vol. i. L. i. p. 65. Ven. 1731, 4to.

4 Poema della TESEIDE del Boccacio chiosato, e dichiarato du Andrea de Bassi in Ferrara, 1475, fol.

In Lydgate's TEMPLE OF GLAS, never printed, among the lovers painted on the wall is Theseus killing the Minotaure. I suppose from Ovid. Bibl. Bodl. MSS. Fairfax, 16. Or from Chaucer, Legende Ariadne.

6 MSS. Bibl. [Reg. Paris.] Tom. ii. 974. E.

228

THE THESEID OF BOCCACIO AND ITS HISTORY.

logne, par sa prouesse empereur de Rome, et aussi de son fils Gadifer 'empereur du Greece, et de trois enfans du dit Gadifer, traduite de vieille rime Picarde en prose Francoise.' Paris 15341. Gadifer, with whom Theseus is joined in this ancient tale, written probably by a troubadour of Picardy, is a champion in the oldest French romances?. He is mentioned frequently in the French romance of Alexander. In the romance of PERCEFORREST, he is called king of Scotland, and said to be crowned by Alexander the great1. But whether or no this prose HITOIRE DU CHEVALIER THESEUS is the story of Theseus in question, or whether this is the same Theseus, I cannot ascertain. There is likewise in the same royal library a manuscript, called by Montfaucon, HISTORIA THESEI IN LINGUA VULGARI, in ten books". The Abbe Goujet observes, that there is in some libraries of France an old French translation of BOCCACIO'S THESEID, from which Anna de Graville formed the French poem of PALAMON and ARCITE, at the command of queen Claude, wife of Francis I., about the year 1487o. Either the translation used by Anna de Graville, or her poem, is perhaps the second of the manuscripts mentioned by Montfaucon. Boccacio's THESEID has also been translated into Italian prose, by Nicholas Granuci and printed at Lucca in 15797. Boccacio himself mentions the story of Palamon and Arcite. This may seem to imply that the story existed before his time: unless he artfully intended to recommend his own poem on the subject by such an allusion. It is where he introduces two lovers singing a portion of this tale. 'Dioneo 'e Fiametta gran pezza canterona insieme d'ARCITE e de PALAMONES.' By Dioneo, Boccacio represents himself; and by Fiametta, his mistress, Mary of Aragon, a natural daughter of Rob. king of Naples.

I confess I am of opinion, that Boccacio's THESEID is an original composition. But there is a Greco-barbarous poem extant on this subject, which, if it could be proved to be antecedent in point of time to the Italian poem, would degrade Boccacio to a mere translator on this occasion. It is a matter that deserves to be examined at large, and to be traced with accuracy.

This Greek poem is as little known and as scarce as Boccacio's THESEID. It is entitled, Θησέας καὶ γάμου τῆς Ἐμηλίας. It was printed in quarto at Venice in the year 1529. Stampata in Vinegia per

1 Fol. tom. ii. Again, ibid. 4to. Bl. Lett. Lenglet, Bibl. Rom. p. 191.

2 The chevaliers of the courts of Charles the fifth and sixth adopted names from the old romances, such as Lancelot, Gadifer, Carados, &c. Mem. anc. Cheval. i. p. 340.

3 Historie du Perceforrest roy de la Gr. Bretagne, et Gadiffer roy d'Escoffe, &c. 6 tom.' Paris, 1531. fol.

4 Bibl. MSS. ut supr. p. 773.

5 4to. There is a French prose translation with it. The THESEID has also been translated into French prose by D. C. C. 1597. 12mo. Paris. La THESEIDE de Jean Boccace, con• tenant les chastes amours de deux chevaliers Thebans, Arcite et Polemon, &c.' Jane de la Fontaine also translated into French verse this poem. She died 1536. Her translation was never printed. It is applauded by Joannes Secundus, Eleg. xv.

6 Giorn. vii. Nov. 10. p. 348. edit. Vineg. 1548. 4to. Chaucer himself alludes to this story, El. Kn. v. 369. Perhaps on the same principle.