I. A connected series of utterances in praise of wisdom with warnings against folly (i.-ix.).

II. A collection of separate ethical and practical maxims (x.-xxii. 16), noted as "The Proverbs of Solomon."

III. A connected series commending justice and prudence (xxii. 17-xxiv. 22). IV. A short series of the sayings of several sages (xxiv. 23-34).

V. Another collection copied out by the men of Hezekiah (xxv.-xxix.).

VI. The words of Agur (xxx.). VII. King Lemuel's exhortation to temperance and justice (xxxi. 1-9).

VIII. An alphabetical poem in praise of a virtuous (or rather, capable) woman (xxxi. 10-31).

The whole book is a mine of practical wisdom, giving sound advice for all the relations of human life, and always invoking a religious sanction. Few questions can arise in the intercourse of men upon which this book does not throw light. It far exceeds all similar collections of merely human origin, such as the sayings of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, or the Aurea Carmina attributed to Pythagoras. They trace wisdom to its true source and teach men the fear of God as the fountain of life. Their prudential character has sometimes been objected to as an appeal to a low class of motives, but a similar appeal runs through the Old Testament and was often made by the blessed Saviour (Matt. x. 28, Mark xvi. 16). And it is just such short, sharp, pointed sayings that lodge in the memory and can be recalled at will, that help a man when resisting the fierce onset of temptation. All races have their storehouse of proverbial utterances, but none of these are so pure, wholesome and kindly as the 31 chapters first recorded by Solomon and his successors. An imitation is found in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, containing the wisdom of the Son of Sirach, but it is easy for a careful reader to mark the difference between the copy and the original.

There is no book of the Old Testament whose canonical authority is better attested. It is often quoted or alluded to in the New Testament (Rom. xii. 20, 1 Thess. v. 15, Heb. xii. 5, 6, Jas. iv. 6, 1 Pet. iv. 8, 2 Pet. ii. 22).

Among the Commentaries worthy of commendation are those by Bridges (London 1850), Arnot (Edinburgh, 1869), Delitzsch (Edinburgh, 1875, 2 vols.), [John Miller, (New York, 1872, 2d ed., Princeton, N. J.. 1887, very eccentric in translation, but original and stimulating)].

T. W. C.

Providence. The word occurs but once in Scripture, viz., in the speech of the orator Tertullus (Acts xxiv. 2), but the thing it signifies when applied to God, runs through all human history. God's providence is the continuance of creation. It is co-extensive with the universe and lasts through all time. Nothing is too high or too low for His superintending care. All nature depends upon Him. There is no such thing as chance; the lot is cast into

PRYNNE

the lap, but the whole disposing thereof is of the Lord (Prov. xvi. 33). Not a sparrow, not a hair of the head falls to the ground without His knowledge. We cannot explain why sin was permitted to exist, but we know that God overrules it to wise and holy ends.

The universe is not a machine which having been wound up and set in motion is henceforth left to itself, nor on the other hand is it so related to its maker that He is only efficient agent, renewing his creative work from moment to moment. But second causes really exist and man is a free and responsible being, yet God exercises a particular and efficacious control, in accordance with his own perfections and the nature of his creatures, which secures the accomplishment of his eternal purpose.

The doctrine of providence is the basis of religion in theory and in practice. The experience of each individual believer and that of the whole church illustrates at every step the hand of Him "who worketh all things after the counsel of His own will." T. W. C.

Province, in the terminology of the Roman Church, means the territory in which an archbishop exercises jurisdiction, and whose boundaries are generally traced in conformity with certain geographical and

historical features.

Provincial is the title of a monastic official, the superintendent-general of a number of monasteries which together form a. province, the circumscription of a monastic province depending on the number of monasteries and not on the geographical extension. The provincial ranks next to the general of an order.

Provost, from the Latin præpositus, "placed before," means in ecclesiastical terminology the chief of a body of canons, or the second in authority under an abbot or that member of a chapter who manages the estates.

Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens, b. in Spain, in 348, of a prominent family; date of death unknown; is famous for his poetic effusions. He began with hymns, evidently upon the basis of the work of Ambrose, but in his earliest productions, the hymns of the Liber Cathemerinon, he emancipates himself from every trammel, and gives utterance to what may serve not only his religious edification, but the gratification of his taste. This independent character increases in his later works, his Peristephanon, in which he weaves a garland for the Christian martyrs, and his didactic works. Thus he is a protagonist of modern poetry. His works Brockhaus, A. Prudentius in seiner Bedeutare in Migne, Pat. Lat. LIX. LX.; cf. ung für die Kirche seiner Zeit, Leipzig, 1872. F. H. F.

Prynne, William (Presbyterian) Puritan; b. at Swainswick near Bath, 1600; d. in London, Oct. 24, 1669. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, 1616, and Lincoln's Inn, 1621. His learning was matched by his strength of will and bitter opposition to

prelacy and tyranny. By several publications beginning 1627, he roused the anger of Laud and the Star Chamber. For his Histrio-mastix, 1633, he was fined, imprisoned, degraded, pilloried, and lost his ears (May 7, 1634). For News from Ipswich, he was again cropped (June 30, 1637), and confined at Lancaster and in Jersey, till released by the Long Parliament, 1640. He was received with honors in London, and reparation ordered for his sufferings. He plunged again into polemics, and helped bring Laud to the block, but later defended the king, and was embroiled with the Independents. He was in Parliament 1648-50, and again from 1659. He favored the Restoration, and was made chief keeper of the records in the Tower. F. M. B.

Psalmanazar, George, a pretended Formosan; b. probably in Languedoc about 1679; d. in London, May 3, 1763. As a convert from Paganism, he was brought from Flanders to London, where he published a Description of Formosa, 1704; this was followed by an alphabet, specimens of the language, and other works. He was sent to Oxford by Bishop Compton, and for some years his strange story was believed; about 1710, he confessed his imposture under pressure, and thereafter lived correctly, writing Essays on Scriptural Subjects, 1753, and other honest books. His Memoirs appeared London, 1764, but his real name and birthplace were never disclosed.

F. M. B.

Psalmody, the singing of psalms, formed part of the service in the synagogue, and was thence transferred to the Christian Church, probably from its very origin. Justin Martyr, 100-165, speaks of the Christians as singing hymns. The first council of Braga 353, forbade to use any compositions but "the psalms and hymns

of the Old and New Testaments" in worship. Everything goes to show that the singing of psalms is a very old element in the Christian service. It was done in various ways. Either the psalm was chanted by a single person while the rest of the congregation was listening, or it was sung by the whole congregation in unison; or the congregation was divided into two parts or choirs, which sang alternate verses; or the first part of the verse was sung by a single person, and the last by the whole congregation. There is an elaborate article on the subject in Smith and Cheetham, Dict. Christ. Antiq. C. P.

Psalms, The Book of. The Hebrew name of this book is tehillim, praises, this being the predominant character even of the penitential songs.

The Greek name, from which the English is derived, comes from a word signifying to play on a stringed instrument, and denotes a pious song. The Psalms form one book and are so referred to by our Lord (Luke xx. 42) and his apostles (Acts i. 20), but from a very early period were divided into 5 distinct collections, each of which is closed by a doxology and a double amen. The principle which underlies this division is not certainly known.

A few Pss. are repeated with some variations in different books, viz., xiv. and liii.; the latter part of xl. and Ixx.; lx. and cviii; showing that the 5 books were originally separate collections. The final compilation of the Psalter as it stands is generally referred to Ezra, about 450 B.C.

The best classification of the Psalms is based on their contents.

I. Songs of Praise to Jehovah, as the God of nature viii.. xxix., civ.; as protector of Israel xx., xlvi., xlviii., lxv.; as having infinite perfections, xc., cxxxix., and the Hallelujah Psalms cxlv.-cl.

II. Songs of Thanksgiving, as, lxvi., lxxvi., ciii.

III. The Penitential Psalms: vi., xxxviii., li., cii., cxxx., cxliii.

IV. The Pilgrim Psalms or "Songs of Degrees," cxx.-cxxxiv.

V. Historical Psalms; poetic narrative of God's ancient dealings with his people: 1xxviii., cv., cvi., cxiv.

VI. Messianic Songs: ii., viii., xvi., xxii., xl., xlv., lxix., lxxii., xcvii., cx., cxviii.

VII. Didactic Poems, on the fate of the righteous and the wicked, as i., ix.-xii., xxxiv.; on the excellence of God's law, xix., cxix.; on the vanity of human life, xxxix., xlix., xc.; on the duty of rulers, lxxxii., ci.

VIII. Imprecatory Psalms, of which there are 25, but the chief are xxxv., lii., lviii., lix., lxix., cix., cxxxvii.

No arrangement of this kind can be perfect because some of the Pss. belong in part to 2 or more classes, but it serves to indicate the wide sweep of these ancient singers and the rich variety of their utterances. A peculiar feature of the collection is the alphabetical Pss. (xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxii., cxix., cxlv.), each verse or pair of verses beginning with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet in order. This acrostic way of writing is used also in the last chapter of Proverbs, and the first 3 chapters of Lamentations. No way of reproducing it in a translation has yet been found, save in Ps. cxix., where the Hebrew letter is prefixed to each strophe.

With the exception of 34, called in the Talmud Orphan Psalms, all these songs have titles or inscriptions of various kinds. They refer to the author, the occasion, the nature of the song, the melody or rhythm, or the choir who are to perform. They are very obscure, because the music and musical instruments of the Hebrews are mostly unknown to us. They are of very high antiquity, if not as old as the Pss. themselves. They are found in all the Hebrew MSS. and appear with numerous variations in the ancient versions. In some instances

*In the Rev. Ver. this title is given as "a song of ascents," i. e., of going up to Jerusalem on occasion of the annual festivals.

their meaning has been lost, and the Septuagint does not even attempt a translation, but so far as we are able to interpret them they give valuable information. If they were, as many contend, a spurious addition to the text, it is difficult to see why such an addition should not have been made to each member of the collection.

The authors of the Psalter are very various, since its composition or growth covers a period of a thousand years from Moses to Ezra, but most of the contents belong to the reigns of David and Solomon. About two-thirds are ascribed in the titles to specific authors. To David are given 80, viz. i.-xli. (including i. and ii., which are anonymous), li.-lxx., ci.-ciii., cviii.-cx., cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi.-cxxxiv., cxxxviii.-cxlv. He is the largest contributor and gave the tone to all the rest, and hence the whole collec

tion often takes his name.

To Asaph, of the tribe of Levi, the leader of David's choirs, are assigned 12 Pss., I., lxxiii.lxxxiii., which are for the most part of a didactic character. To the sons of Korah, a family of poetical priests of the age of David, 13 Pss., xlii., xlix., lxxxiv., lxxxv.. lxxxvii. It is by no means certain that the Korahites were the authors of these Pss., they may have been only the performers of the musical rendering. These Pss. are distinguished for poetic vivacity and bold flights of imagination. To Solomon are given 2 Pss., Ixxii., and cxxvii., and to Moses one, the lofty and melancholy Ps.

XC.

The Psalter is a wonderful collection of lyrics. It is religious throughout, no secular or profane song being admitted. It is cheerful and animating, even the elegiac or penitential all (with one exception, the Ixxxviii.) closing in a hopeful strain. As a book of devotion it has proved itself suited to all ages and lands, because it springs from the heart and expresses every phase of a genuine religious experience. Hence it has been just as acceptable in western climes as in the East where it originated. It has always been dear to pious Jews, and all branches of the Christian Church; the Greek, the Roman and the Protestant, have an equal regard for the praise-songs of ancient Israel. No believer has a single feeling that is not reflected in this mirror. All the griefs, fears, doubts, cares, hopes and joys, all the tumultuous agitations of the soul as well as its calmer moments are here represented to the life.

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

ing remarks by Spurgeon himself). (See also C. Bridges, The 119th Psalm, London, 1827, many later edd. rep. New York, 1867, a famous exposition; S. Cox, The Pilgrim Psalms, London and New York, 1874; successful translations by Cheyne, London, 1884, 2d ed. 1888, and by De Witt, New York, 1885, 2d ed. 1886.) T. W. C.

Psalter, Psalteriam, Psaltery, means the Book of Psalms arranged for use in worship. To learn the psalter by heart was in olden times part of the training of priests, 604, refused in several known instances to monks, and nuns. Gregory the Great, 590because he knew not the psalter by heart, consecrate an otherwise worthy candidate, and the second council of Nicea, 787, or

dered that no one should be consecrated bishop unless he had mastered his psalter. Benedict, 483-543, made it a rule for his monks to go through the whole psalter every week. In the Psalter of the Roman Catholic Church the psalms are distributed so as to suit the peculiar character of the service; in the Book of Common Prayer they are arranged in sections for the daily morning and evening service.

Psellus, Michael, 1. Flourished about 870, and kept Greek science from disappearing from the world. 2. More famous still, b. about 1020 in Constantinople, performed a like work with the above, was famous as a teacher of all branches of learning, and was still living in 1105. His writings were numerous, and are reprinted in Migne, Pat. Gr., CXXII. F. H. F.

Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. The class of literature included under the word Pseudepigrapha, is most various, but broadly speaking the word means writings whose composition is falsely ascribed to Scripture characters or times.

The word apocrypha (hidden or secret) means substantially the same thing as pseudepigrapha, but has come to be specially applied to two distinct groups of writ ings-the "Old Testament Apocrypha' and the "New Testament Apocrypha." The former of these is partly historical and only semi-pseudepigraphic in character, while the latter is purely pseudepigraphic.

The various classes may be conveniently grouped for survey under

1. Old Testament Apocrypha.
2. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.
3. New Testament Pseudepigrapha.
1) The Apostolical Fathers.
2) The New Testament Apocrypha.
3) Apostolical Liturgies.

4) Apostolical Canons and Constitu

tions.

5) Clementine literature.

6) Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. 4. Medieval and modern pseudepigraphic

1. The Old Testament Apocrypha. The Old Testament Apocrypha stand first in value as well as place. They are historical in character and form the link between the period of the canonical books of the Old Testament and those of the New Testament. They are included in the Greek Bible and various ancient versions. They

are with three exceptions (I. and II. Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses) set on a level with the canonical books by the Roman Catholic Church (Wace) and were in former times generally printed with the canonical books in the Authorized English Version of which they formed a legitimate part. They are now often put almost on a level with the canonical books.

Still used more or less in the liturgy of the Church of England and somewhat in that of the Episcopal Church of America, a reading or a sermon from a text of the Apocrypha is now and then heard in a Congregational or other non-liturgical church as well. They are, however, since the Reformation, regarded as for instruction only and not as if the books had inspired authority. Of late their value has been reasserted on the one hand by those who try to minimize the canonical writings through the elevation of these, and on the other hand by scientific scholarship trying to redeem them from unjust obscurity.

They are very unequal in character and worth and most of them being anonymous or pseudonymous are properly apocryphal. The list of those included in the Authorized English Version is as follows:

(1) I. Esdras; (2) II. Esdras; (3) Tobit; (4) Judith; (5) II. Esther; (6) Wisdom of Solomon; (7) Ecclesiasticus; (8) Baruch; (9) The Epistle of Jeremiah; (10) The Song of the Three Holy Children; (11) The History of Susanna; (12) Bel and the Dragon; (13) The Prayer of Manasses; (14) I. Maccabees; (15) II. Maccabees.

In the early editions the Epistle of Jeremiah is included as the final chapter of Baruch and the total number reckoned as fourteen.

These are conveniently classified, by Bissell (p. 43) "into historical works, as the books of the Maccabees and the larger portion of I. Esdras; moral fictions, as Tobit, Judith, the Additions to Esther and Daniel; poetic and quasi-prophetic works as Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, and the Prayer of Manasses; and finally philosophical and didactic compositions as Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom."

Following is a brief account of the works in detail:

(1) I. Esdras. (1st or 2d century, B.C.) In the Vulgate this is known as III. Edras, Ezra and Nehemiah being received as I. and II.

It is compiled mainly from 2 Chronicles and Ezra and has as theme the rebuilding of the Temple.

(2) II. Esdras (A.D. 89-96) known also as IV. Esdras is a sort of outlaw among outlaws; its seven visions being disfellowshipped by many from the Apocrypha.

(3) Tobit. (1st century B.C., perhaps earlier).

A curious work having its main value rather in the history of fiction than in history or theology. It is an historical novel teeming with anachronisms and historical blunders like a veritable modern one. It has an incidental historical value and as illustrating the theological belief of the time has a certain worth, especially for the

history of demonology. It is at least an interesting bit of literature.

(4) Judith. (Early in 2d century).

The story of Judith who slays Holofernes and delivers her people is one famous in literature and art. It also is probably an historical novel.

(5) Additions to Esther. (2d century B.C.)

These include: (1) A dream of Mordecai, (2) The decree of Haman, (3) The entreaties of Esther and Mordecai, (4) How Esther managed to appear before the king, (5) The edict of the king by Mordecai, (6) Another dream by Mordecai, and various minor statements.

(6) The Book of Wisdom. (2d century B.C.)

This work, the Wisdom of Solomon, is to be distinguished from Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach. It is claimed by some writers to be the work of one person, and by others to be by any number up to as many as seventy-nine, and as many or more dates are assigned. It is a characteristic specimen of the ancient Wisdom literature and valuable for edification.

(7) Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach. (3d-2d century).

The same may be said as of the preceding. The sum of it is "Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom." (8) Baruch.

6..

This contains, following the analysis of Bissell: 1. Introduction. 2. Letter to Jesus in Palestine. 3. A prayer. 4. A panegyric on Wisdom. 5. Lament of Jerusalem. An address to Jerusalem and prophecy of the return of the exiles. It is famous for its lack of originality.

(9) Epistle of Jeremiah.

This was formerly printed as part of Baruch. It pretends to be a letter of Jeremiah to "them who were to be led captives: unto Babylon."

(10) Song of the Three Children-by some supposed to be semi-genuine-when they were thrown into the furnace. This is preceded by the "prayer of Azarias" that the Lord might deliver.

(11) History of Susanna.

This story has been regarded as a sort of fable or a "novel with a purpose," but as to what the purpose was, it is not at all agreed. It is a tale of false accusation where the false witnesses are put to confusion by the wit of Daniel.

(12) Bel and the Dragon. (Late.)

A tale of how Daniel exposed the hypocrisy of the priests of Bel and put a dragon to death with thirty pounds of pitch and fat and hair.

(13) Prayer of Manasses.

Supposed to be the "prayer of Manasses, king of Judah, when he was holden captive in Babylon." Spurious, but of literary quality and interest.

(14) 1. Maccabees.

This is a valuable and on the whole trustworthy history of the Jews from about 175-135 B.C. It contains: Ch. 1. Introduction and accession of Antiochus Epiphanes (iv.); Ch. 2. The revolt of the priest Matta